* man/groff_out.man: Fix nroff mode activation (for emacs).

[s-roff.git] / doc / groff.texinfo

\input texinfo   @c -*-texinfo-*-
@c %**start of header (This is for running Texinfo on a region.)
@setfilename  groff
@settitle The GNU Troff Manual
@setchapternewpage odd
@footnotestyle separate
@c %**end of header (This is for running Texinfo on a region.)


@c We use the following indices:
@c
@c   cindex: concepts
@c   findex: requests, escapes, and functions
@c   vindex: registers
@c   kindex: commands in font files
@c   pindex: programs
@c   tindex: environment variables
@c
@c tindex and cindex are merged.

@syncodeindex tp cp


@c XXX comment all examples


@dircategory Miscellaneous
@direntry
* Groff: (groff).   The GNU troff document formatting system.
@end direntry


@smallbook


@iftex
@finalout
@end iftex


@ifinfo
This Info file documents GNU troff version 1.16.

Published by the Free Software Foundation
59 Temple Place, Suite 330
Boston, MA  02111-1307  USA

Copyright (C) 1994-2000 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.

@ignore
Permission is granted to process this file through TeX and print the
results, provided the printed document carries copying permission notice
identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph (this
paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual).

@end ignore
Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this
manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the
entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a
permission notice identical to this one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual
into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions,
except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation
approved by the Foundation.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this
manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the
section entitled ``GNU General Public License'' is included exactly as
in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is
distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this
one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual
into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions,
except that the section entitled ``GNU General Public License'' may be
included in a translation approved by the Free Software Foundation
instead of in the original English.
@end ifinfo


@titlepage
@title groff
@subtitle The GNU implementation of @code{groff}
@subtitle Edition 1.16
@subtitle Spring 2000
@author by Trent A.@w{ }Fisher
@author and the maintainer of groff

@c Include the Distribution inside the titlepage environment so
@c that headings are turned off.  Headings on and off do not work.

@page
@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
Copyright @copyright@w{ }1994-2000 Free Software Foundation,@w{ }Inc.
@sp 2
Version 1.16 of @code{groff}, @*
Spring 2000
@sp 2
Published by the Free Software Foundation @*
59 Temple Place, Suite 330 @*
Boston, MA  02111-1307  USA


Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this
manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the
section entitled ``GNU General Public License'' is included exactly as
in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is
distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this
one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual
into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions,
except that the section entitled ``GNU General Public License'' may be
included in a translation approved by the Free Software Foundation
instead of in the original English.

Cover art by Etienne Suvasa.
@end titlepage
@page



@node Top, Copying, (dir), (dir)

@ifinfo
This Info file documents groff version 1.16, the GNU implementation of
the troff typesetting system.

This is an in-progress document; contributions, comments, or
contributions are welcome.  Send them to bug-groff@@gnu.org.
@end ifinfo

@menu
* Copying::                     
* Introduction::                
* Invoking groff::              
* Tutorial for Macro Users::    
* Macro Packages::              
* Programming Tutorial::        
* Preprocessors::               
* Output Devices::              
* File formats::                
* Installation::                
* Request and Operator Index::  
* Register Index::              
* Font File Keyword Index::     
* Program and File Index::      
* Concept Index::               
@end menu



@node Copying, Introduction, Top, Top
@cindex copying
@unnumbered GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
@center Version 2, June 1991

@display
Copyright @copyright{}@w{ }1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
59@w{ }Temple Place, Suite@w{ }330, Boston, MA@w{ }02111, USA

Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this
license document, but changing it is not allowed.
@end display

@unnumberedsec Preamble

The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom to
share and change it.  By contrast, the GNU General Public License is
intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free software --
to make sure the software is free for all its users.  This General
Public License applies to most of the Free Software Foundation's
software and to any other program whose authors commit to using it.
(Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by the GNU
Library General Public License instead.)  You can apply it to your
programs, too.

When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price.
Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the
freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for this
service if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it if you
want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new
free programs; and that you know you can do these things.

To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid anyone
to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights.  These
restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you
distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it.

For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether gratis
or for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that you have.
You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code.
And you must show them these terms so they know their rights.

We protect your rights with two steps: (1)@w{ }copyright the software,
and (2)@w{ }offer you this license which gives you legal permission to
copy, distribute and/or modify the software.

Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain
that everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free
software.  If the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we
want its recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so
that any problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original
authors' reputations.

Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software patents.
We wish to avoid the danger that redistributors of a free program will
individually obtain patent licenses, in effect making the program
proprietary.  To prevent this, we have made it clear that any patent
must be licensed for everyone's free use or not licensed at all.

The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and
modification follow.

@iftex
@unnumberedsec TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION
@end iftex
@ifinfo
@center TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION
@end ifinfo

@enumerate 0
@item
This License applies to any program or other work which contains a
notice placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed under
the terms of this General Public License.  The ``Program'', below,
refers to any such program or work, and a ``work based on the Program''
means either the Program or any derivative work under copyright law:
that is to say, a work containing the Program or a portion of it, either
verbatim or with modifications and/or translated into another language.
(Hereinafter, translation is included without limitation in the term
``modification''.)  Each licensee is addressed as ``you''.

Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not
covered by this License; they are outside its scope.  The act of running
the Program is not restricted, and the output from the Program is
covered only if its contents constitute a work based on the Program
(independent of having been made by running the Program).  Whether that
is true depends on what the Program does.

@item
You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's source code
as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously and
appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice and
disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the notices that refer to this
License and to the absence of any warranty; and give any other
recipients of the Program a copy of this License along with the Program.

You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and
you may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee.

@item
You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion of it,
thus forming a work based on the Program, and copy and distribute such
modifications or work under the terms of Section@w{ }1 above, provided
that you also meet all of these conditions:

@enumerate a
@item
You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices stating
that you changed the files and the date of any change.

@item
You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that in whole or
in part contains or is derived from the Program or any part thereof, to
be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third parties under the terms
of this License.

@item
If the modified program normally reads commands interactively when run,
you must cause it, when started running for such interactive use in the
most ordinary way, to print or display an announcement including an
appropriate copyright notice and a notice that there is no warranty (or
else, saying that you provide a warranty) and that users may
redistribute the program under these conditions, and telling the user
how to view a copy of this License.  (Exception: if the Program itself
is interactive but does not normally print such an announcement, your
work based on the Program is not required to print an announcement.)
@end enumerate

These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole.  If
identifiable sections of that work are not derived from the Program, and
can be reasonably considered independent and separate works in
themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not apply to those
sections when you distribute them as separate works.  But when you
distribute the same sections as part of a whole which is a work based on
the Program, the distribution of the whole must be on the terms of this
License, whose permissions for other licensees extend to the entire
whole, and thus to each and every part regardless of who wrote it.

Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest
your rights to work written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to
exercise the right to control the distribution of derivative or
collective works based on the Program.

In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program
with the Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of a
storage or distribution medium does not bring the other work under the
scope of this License.

@item
You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it, under
Section@w{ }2) in object code or executable form under the terms of
Sections@w{ }1 and@w{ }2 above provided that you also do one of the
following:

@enumerate a
@item
Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable source
code, which must be distributed under the terms of Sections@w{ }1 and@w{
}2 above on a medium customarily used for software interchange; or,

@item
Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three years, to
give any third party, for a charge no more than your cost of physically
performing source distribution, a complete machine-readable copy of the
corresponding source code, to be distributed under the terms of
Sections@w{ }1 and@w{ }2 above on a medium customarily used for software
interchange; or,

@item
Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer to
distribute corresponding source code.  (This alternative is allowed only
for noncommercial distribution and only if you received the program in
object code or executable form with such an offer, in accord with
Subsection@w{ }b above.)
@end enumerate

The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for
making modifications to it.  For an executable work, complete source
code means all the source code for all modules it contains, plus any
associated interface definition files, plus the scripts used to control
compilation and installation of the executable.  However, as a special
exception, the source code distributed need not include anything that is
normally distributed (in either source or binary form) with the major
components (compiler, kernel, and so on) of the operating system on
which the executable runs, unless that component itself accompanies the
executable.

If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering access
to copy from a designated place, then offering equivalent access to copy
the source code from the same place counts as distribution of the source
code, even though third parties are not compelled to copy the source
along with the object code.

@item
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program except
as expressly provided under this License.  Any attempt otherwise to
copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Program is void, and will
automatically terminate your rights under this License.  However,
parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License
will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain
in full compliance.

@item
You are not required to accept this License, since you have not signed
it.  However, nothing else grants you permission to modify or distribute
the Program or its derivative works.  These actions are prohibited by
law if you do not accept this License.  Therefore, by modifying or
distributing the Program (or any work based on the Program), you
indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and all its terms and
conditions for copying, distributing or modifying the Program or works
based on it.

@item
Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the
Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the
original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to
these terms and conditions.  You may not impose any further restrictions
on the recipients' exercise of the rights granted herein.  You are not
responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties to this License.

@item
If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent
infringement or for any other reason (not limited to patent issues),
conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or
otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not
excuse you from the conditions of this License.  If you cannot
distribute so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this
License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you
may not distribute the Program at all.  For example, if a patent license
would not permit royalty-free redistribution of the Program by all those
who receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then the only way
you could satisfy both it and this License would be to refrain entirely
from distribution of the Program.

If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under
any particular circumstance, the balance of the section is intended to
apply and the section as a whole is intended to apply in other
circumstances.

It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any
patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of any
such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting the
integrity of the free software distribution system, which is implemented
by public license practices.  Many people have made generous
contributions to the wide range of software distributed through that
system in reliance on consistent application of that system; it is up to
the author/donor to decide if he or she is willing to distribute
software through any other system and a licensee cannot impose that
choice.

This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to be
a consequence of the rest of this License.

@item
If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in certain
countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the original
copyright holder who places the Program under this License may add an
explicit geographical distribution limitation excluding those countries,
so that distribution is permitted only in or among countries not thus
excluded.  In such case, this License incorporates the limitation as if
written in the body of this License.

@item
The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of
the General Public License from time to time.  Such new versions will be
similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to
address new problems or concerns.

Each version is given a distinguishing version number.  If the Program
specifies a version number of this License which applies to it and ``any
later version'', you have the option of following the terms and
conditions either of that version or of any later version published by
the Free Software Foundation.  If the Program does not specify a version
number of this License, you may choose any version ever published by the
Free Software Foundation.

@item
If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free programs
whose distribution conditions are different, write to the author to ask
for permission.  For software which is copyrighted by the Free Software
Foundation, write to the Free Software Foundation; we sometimes make
exceptions for this.  Our decision will be guided by the two goals of
preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and
of promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally.

@iftex
@heading NO WARRANTY
@end iftex
@ifinfo
@center NO WARRANTY
@end ifinfo

@item
BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR
THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW@.  EXCEPT WHEN
OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES
PROVIDE THE PROGRAM ``AS IS'' WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER
EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE@.
THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH
YOU@.  SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL
NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION.

@item
IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING
WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MAY MODIFY AND/OR
REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR
DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL
DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM
(INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED
INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF
THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR
OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.
@end enumerate

@iftex
@heading END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
@end iftex
@ifinfo
@center END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
@end ifinfo


@page
@unnumberedsec How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs

If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest
possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it
free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these
terms.

To do so, attach the following notices to the program.  It is safest to
attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively convey
the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least the
``copyright'' line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.

@smallexample
@var{one line to give the program's name and an idea of what it does.}
Copyright (C) 19@var{yy} @var{name of author}

This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or (at
your option) any later version.

This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but
WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE@.  See the GNU
General Public License for more details.

You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111, USA.
@end smallexample

Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.

If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this
when it starts in an interactive mode:

@smallexample
Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) 19@var{yy} @var{name of author}
Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type
`show w'.  This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute
it under certain conditions; type `show c' for details.
@end smallexample

The hypothetical commands @samp{show@w{ }w} and @samp{show@w{ }c} should
show the appropriate parts of the General Public License.  Of course,
the commands you use may be called something other than @samp{show@w{
}w} and @samp{show@w{ }c}; they could even be mouse-clicks or menu
items---whatever suits your program.

You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your
school, if any, to sign a ``copyright disclaimer'' for the program, if
necessary.  Here is a sample; alter the names:

@smallexample
@group
Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program
`Gnomovision' (which makes passes at compilers) written by James
Hacker.

@var{signature of Ty Coon}, 1 April 1989 Ty Coon, President of Vice
@end group
@end smallexample

This General Public License does not permit incorporating your program
into proprietary programs.  If your program is a subroutine library, you
may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications
with the library.  If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Library
General Public License instead of this License.



@node Introduction, Invoking groff, Copying, Top
@chapter Introduction
@cindex introduction

GNU @code{troff} (or @code{groff}) is a system for typesetting
documents.  @code{troff} is very flexible and has been in existence (and
use) for about 3@w{ }decades.  It is quite widespread and firmly
entrenched in the @sc{Unix} community.

@menu
* What Is groff?::              
* History::                     
* groff Capabilities::          
* Macro Package Intro::         
* Preprocessor Intro::          
* Output device intro::         
* Credits::                     
@end menu


@node What Is groff?, History, Introduction, Introduction
@section What Is @code{groff}?
@cindex what is @code{groff}?
@cindex @code{groff} -- what is it?

@code{groff} is of an older generation of document preparation systems,
which operate more like compilers than the more recent interactive
WYSIWYG@footnote{What You See Is What You Get} systems.  @code{groff}
and its contemporary counterpart, @TeX{}, both work using a @dfn{batch}
paradigm: The input (or @dfn{source}) files are normal text files with
embedded formatting commands.  These files can then be processed by
@code{groff} to produce a typeset document on a variety of devices.

Likewise, @code{groff} should not be confused with a @dfn{word
processor}, since that term connotes an integrated system which includes
an editor and a text formatter.  Also, many word processors follow the
WYSIWYG paradigm which was discussed earlier.

Although WYSIWYG systems may be easier to use, they have a number of
disadvantages compared to @code{troff}:

@itemize @bullet{}
@item
They must be used on a bitmapped display to do any operations on your
document.
@item
Most of the WYSIWYG systems are either non-free or are not very
portable.
@item
@code{troff} is firmly entrenched in all @sc{Unix} systems.
@item
It is difficult to have a wide range of capabilities available within
the confines of a GUI/window system.
@item
It is more difficult to make global changes to a document.
@end itemize

@quotation
``GUIs normally make it simple to accomplish simple actions and
impossible to accomplish complex actions.''  --Doug Gwyn (22/Jun/91 in
@code{comp.unix.wizards})
@end quotation


@node History, groff Capabilities, What Is groff?, Introduction
@section History
@cindex history

@cindex @code{runoff}
@code{troff} can trace its origins back to a formatting program called
@code{runoff} which ran on MIT's CTSS system.  This name came from the
common phrase of the time ``I'll run off a document.''

@cindex @code{roff}
The first version of @sc{Unix} was developed on a PDP-7 which was
sitting around Bell Labs.  In 1971 the developers wanted to get a PDP-11
for further work on the operating system.  In order to justify the cost
for this system, they proposed that they would implement a document
formatting system for the AT&T patents division.  This first formatting
program was a reimplementation of @code{runoff}.  In accordance with
@sc{Unix}'s penchant for abreviations, it was named @code{roff} (an
abreviation of @code{runoff}).

@cindex @code{nroff}
When they needed a more flexible language, a new version of @code{roff}
called @code{nroff} (Newer @code{roff}) was written.  It had a much more
complicated syntax, but provided the basis for all future versions.
When they got a Graphic Systems CAT Phototypesetter, J.@w{ }F.@w{
}Ossanna wrote a version of @code{nroff} which would drive it.  It was
dubbed @code{troff} for typesetter @code{roff}, although many people
have speculated that it actually means Times @code{roff} because of the
use of the Times font family in @code{troff} by default.  As such, the
name @code{troff} is pronounced t-roff rather than trough.

With @code{troff} came @code{nroff} (they were actually the same program
except for some @samp{#ifdefs}), which was for producing output for line
printers and character terminals.  It understood everything @code{troff}
did, and ignored the commands which were not aplicable (i.e.@: font
changes).

Since there are several things which cannot be done easily in
@code{troff}, work on several preprocessors began.  These programs would
transform certain parts of a document into @code{troff}, which made a
very natural use of pipes in @sc{Unix}.

The @code{eqn} preprocessor allowed mathematical formul@ae{} to be
specified in a much simpler and more intuitive manner.  @code{tbl} is a
preprocessor for formatting tables.  The @code{refer} preprocessor (and
the similar program, @code{bib}) processes citations in a document
according to a bibliographic database.

Unfortunately, Ossanna's @code{troff} was written in PDP-11 assembly
language and produced output specifically for the CAT phototypesetter.
He rewrote it in C, although it was now 7000@w{ }lines of uncommented
code and still dependent on the CAT.  As the CAT became less common, and
was no longer supported by the manufacturer, the need to make it support
other devices became a priority.  However, before this could be done, he
was killed in an auto accident.

@pindex ditroff
@cindex @code{ditroff}
So, Brian Kernighan took on the task of rewriting @code{troff}.  The
newly rewritten version produced a device independent code which was
very easy for postprocessors to read and translate to the appropriate
printer codes.  Also, this new version of @code{troff} (called
@code{ditroff}) had several extentions, which included drawing
functions.

Due to the additional abilities of the new version of @code{troff},
several new preprocessors appeared.  The @code{pic} preprocessor
provides a wide range of drawing functions.  Likewise the @code{ideal}
preprocessor did the same, although via a much different paradigm.  The
@code{grap} preprocessor took specifications for graphs, but, unlike
other preprocessors, produced @code{pic} code.

James Clark began work on a GNU implementation of @code{ditroff} in
early@w{ }1989.  The first version, @code{groff}@w{ }0.3.1, was released
June@w{ }1990.  @code{groff} included

@itemize @bullet{}
@item
A replacement for @code{ditroff} with many extentions.
@item
The @code{soelim}, @code{pic}, @code{tbl}, and @code{eqn} preprocessors.
@item
Postprocessors for character devices, PostScript, @TeX{} DVI, and X@w{
}windows.  GNU @code{troff} also eliminated the need for a separate
@code{nroff} program with a postprocessor which would produce @sc{ascii}
output.
@item
A version of the @code{-me} macros and an implementation of the
@code{-man} macros.
@end itemize

Also, a front-end was included which could construct the, sometimes
painfully long, pipelines required for all the post- and preprocessors.

Development of GNU @code{troff} progressed rapidly, and saw the
additions of a replacement for @code{refer}, an implementation of the
@code{-ms} and @code{-mm} macros, and a program to deduce how to format
a document (@code{grog}).

It was declared a stable (i.e.@: non beta) package with the release of
version@w{ }1.04 around November@w{ }1991.

Beginning in@w{ }1999, @code{groff} has new maintainers (the package was
an orphan for a few years).  As a result, new features and programs like
@code{grn}, a preprocessor for gremlin images, and @code{grohtml}, an
output device to produce HTML output, have been added.


@node groff Capabilities, Macro Package Intro, History, Introduction
@section @code{groff} Capabilities
@cindex @code{groff} capabilities
@cindex capabilities of @code{groff}

So what exactly is @code{groff} capable of doing?  @code{groff} provides
a wide range of low-level text formatting operations.  Using these, you
can perform a wide range of formatting tasks, such as footnotes, table
of contents, multiple columns, etc.

@itemize @bullet{}
@item
Text filling, adjusting, and centering
@item
Hyphenation
@item
Page control
@item
Font and character size control
@item
Vertical spacing (i.e.@: double spacing)
@item
Line length and indenting
@item
Macros, strings, diversions, and traps
@item
Number registers
@item
Tabs, leaders, and fields
@item
Input and output conventions and character translation
@item
Overstrike, bracket, line drawing, and zero-width functions
@item
Local horizontal and vertical motions and the width function
@item
Three-part titles
@item
Output line numbering
@item
Conditional acceptance of input
@item
Environment switching
@item
Insertions from the standard input
@item
Input/output file switching
@item
Output and error messages
@end itemize


@node Macro Package Intro, Preprocessor Intro, groff Capabilities, Introduction
@section Macro Packages
@cindex macro packages

Since @code{groff} provides such low level facilities, it can be quite
difficult to use by itself.  However, @code{groff} provides a
@dfn{macro} facility which allows you to specify how certain routine
operations (e.g.@w{ }starting paragraphs, printing headers and footers,
etc.)@: should be done.  These macros can be collected together into a
@dfn{macro package}.  There are a number of macro packages available;
the most common (and the ones described in this manual) are @code{-man},
@code{-mdoc}, @code{-me}, @code{-ms}, and @code{-mm}.


@node Preprocessor Intro, Output device intro, Macro Package Intro, Introduction
@section Preprocessors
@cindex preprocessors

Although @code{groff} provides most functions needed to format a
document, some operations would be unwieldy (i.e.@: drawing pictures).
Therefore, programs called preprocessors were written which understand
their own language and produce the necessary @code{groff} operations.
These preprocessors are able to differentiate their own input from the
rest of the document via markers.

To use a preprocessor, @sc{Unix} pipes are used to feed the output from
the preprocessor into @code{groff}.  Any number of preprocessors may be
used on a given document; in this case, the preprocessors are linked
together into one pipeline.  However, in @code{groff}, the user does not
need to construct the pipe, but only tell @code{groff} what
preprocessors to use.

@code{groff} currently has preprocessors for producing tables
(@code{tbl}), typesetting equations (@code{eqn}), drawing pictures
(@code{pic} and @code{grn}), and for processing bibliographies
(@code{refer}).  An associated program which is useful when dealing with
preprocessors is @code{soelim}.

There are other preprocessors in existence, but there are,
unfortunately, no free implementations available.  They are for drawing
pictures (@code{ideal}) and chemical structures (@code{chem}).

A free implementation of @code{grap}, a preprocessor for drawing graphs,
can be obtained as an extra package.


@node Output device intro, Credits, Preprocessor Intro, Introduction
@section Output Devices
@cindex postprocessors
@cindex output devices
@cindex devices for output

@code{groff} actually produces device independent code which may be fed
into a postprocessor which will produce output for a particular device.
Currently, @code{groff} has postprocessors for PostScript, character
terminals, X@w{ }Windows (for previewing), @TeX{} DVI format, HP
LaserJet@w{ }4 printers, and HTML.


@node Credits,  , Output device intro, Introduction
@section Credits
@cindex credits

Large portions of this manual were taken from existing documents, most
notably, the manual pages for the @code{groff} package by James Clark,
and Eric Allman's papers on the @code{-me} macro package.



@node Invoking groff, Tutorial for Macro Users, Introduction, Top
@chapter Invoking @code{groff}
@cindex invoking @code{groff}
@cindex @code{groff} invocation

@pindex groff
@pindex gtroff
This section focuses on how to invoke the @code{groff} front end.  This
front end takes care of the details of constructing the pipeline among
the preprocessors, @code{gtroff} and the postprocessor.

It has become a tradition that GNU programs get the prefix @dfn{g} to
distinguish it from its original counterparts provided by the host
(@pxref{Environment}, for more details).  Thus, for example, @code{geqn}
is GNU @code{eqn}.  On operating systems like Linux or the Hurd, which
don't contain proprietary software, this prefix is omitted since GNU
@code{troff} is the only used incarnation of @code{troff}.  Exception:
@code{groff} is never replaced by @code{roff}.

@menu
* Options::                     
* Environment::                 
* Invocation Examples::         
@end menu


@node Options, Environment, Invoking groff, Invoking groff
@section Options
@cindex options

@pindex groff
@pindex gtroff
@pindex gpic
@pindex geqn
@pindex ggrn
@pindex gtbl
@pindex grefer
@pindex gsoelim
@code{groff} is a front-end to the groff document formatting system.
Normally it runs the @code{gtroff} program and a postprocessor
appropriate for the selected device.  The default device is @samp{ps}.
It can optionally preprocess with any of @code{gpic}, @code{geqn},
@code{gtbl}, @code{ggrn}, @code{grefer}, or @code{gsoelim}.

This section only documents options to the @code{groff} front end.  Many
of the arguments to @code{groff} are passed on to @code{gtroff},
therefore those are also included.  Arguments to pre- or postprocessors
can be found in @ref{Invoking gpic}, @ref{Invoking geqn}, @ref{Invoking
gtbl}, @ref{Invoking ggrn}, @ref{Invoking grefer}, @ref{Invoking
gsoelim}, @ref{Invoking grotty}, @ref{Invoking grops}, @ref{Invoking
grohtml}, @ref{Invoking grodvi}, and @ref{Invoking gxditview}.

The command line format for @code{groff} is:

@example
groff [ -abeghilpstvzCENRSUVXZ ] [ -F@var{dir} ] [ -m@var{name} ]
      [ -T@var{def} ] [ -f@var{fam} ] [ -w@var{name} ] [ -W@var{name} ]
      [ -M@var{dir} ] [ -d@var{cs} ] [ -r@var{cn} ] [ -n@var{num} ]
      [ -o@var{list} ] [ -P@var{arg} ] [ -L@var{arg} ] [ -I@var{dir} ]
      [ @var{files}@dots{} ]
@end example

The command line format for @code{gtroff} is as follows.  As you can
see, many of the options to @code{groff} are actually passed on to
@code{gtroff}.

@example
gtroff [ -abivzCERU ] [ -w@var{name} ] [ -W@var{name} ] [ -d@var{cs} ]
       [ -f@var{fam} ] [ -m@var{name} ] [ -n@var{num} ]
       [ -o@var{list} ] [ -r@var{cn} ] [ -T@var{name} ]
       [ -F@var{dir} ] [ -M@var{dir} ] [ @var{files}@dots{} ]
@end example

Options without an argument can be grouped behind a single @samp{-}.  A
filename of @samp{-} denotes the standard input.

@pindex grog
The @code{grog} command can be used to guess the correct @code{groff}
command to use to format a file.

@table @samp
@item -h
Print a help message.
@item -e
Preprocess with @code{geqn}.
@item -t
Preprocess with @code{gtbl}.
@item -g
Preprocess with @code{ggrn}.
@item -p
Preprocess with @code{gpic}.
@item -s
Preprocess with @code{gsoelim}.
@item -R
Preprocess with @code{grefer}.  No mechanism is provided for passing
arguments to @code{grefer} because most @code{grefer} options have
equivalent commands which can be included in the file.  @xref{grefer},
for more details.

@pindex troffrc
@pindex troffrc-end
Note that @code{gtroff} also accepts a @samp{-R} option, which is not
accessible via @code{groff}.  This option prevents the loading of the
@file{troffrc} and @file{troffrc-end} files.
@item -v
Make programs run by @code{groff} print out their version number.
@item -V
Print the pipeline on stdout instead of executing it.
@item -z
Suppress output from @code{gtroff}.  Only error messages will be
printed.
@item -Z
Do not postprocess the output of @code{gtroff}.  Normally @code{groff}
will automatically run the appropriate postprocessor.
@item -P@var{arg}
Pass @var{arg} to the postprocessor.  Each argument should be passed
with a separate @samp{-P} option.  Note that @code{groff} does not
prepend @samp{-} to @var{arg} before passing it to the postprocessor.
@item -l
Send the output to a printer.  The command used for this is specified by
the print command in the device description file.
@item -L@var{arg}
Pass @var{arg} to the spooler.  Each argument should be passed with a
separate @samp{-L} option.  Note that @code{groff} does not prepend a
@samp{-} to @var{arg} before passing it to the postprocessor.
@item -T@var{dev}
Prepare output for device @var{dev}.  The default device is @samp{ps}.
The following are the output devices currently available:
@table @samp
@item ps
For PostScript printers and previewers.
@item dvi
For @TeX{} dvi format.
@item X75
For a 75@dmn{dpi} X11 previewer.
@item X100
For a 100@dmn{dpi} X11 previewer.
@item @sc{ascii}
For typewriter-like devices.
@item latin1
For typewriter-like devices using the @w{ISO Latin-1} (@w{ISO 8859-1})
character set.
@item utf8
For typewriter-like devices which use the Unicode (@w{ISO 10646})
character set with @w{UTF-8} encoding.
@item lj4
For an HP LaserJet4-compatible (or other PCL5-compatible) printer.
@item html
To produce HTML output.
@end table

The postprocessor to be used for a device is specified by the
@code{postpro} command in the device description file.  (@xref{Font
Files}, for more info.)  This can be overridden with the @samp{-X}
option.
@item -X
Preview with @code{gxditview} instead of using the usual postprocessor.
This is unlikely to produce good results except with @samp{-Tps}.
@item -N
Don't allow newlines with @code{eqn} delimiters.  This is the same as
the @samp{-N} option in @code{geqn}.
@item -S
Safer mode.  Pass the @samp{-S} option to @code{gpic} and use the
@samp{-msafer} macros with @code{gtroff} (enabled by default).
@item -U
Unsafe mode.  Reverts to the old unsafe behaviour.
@item -a
Generate an @sc{ascii} approximation of the typeset output.
@item -b
Print a backtrace with each warning or error message.  This backtrace
should help track down the cause of the error.  The line numbers given
in the backtrace may not always be correct: @code{gtroff} can get
confused by @code{as} or @code{am} requests while couting line numbers.
@item -i
Read the standard input after all the named input files have been
processed.
@item -w@var{name}
Enable warning @var{name}.  Available warnings are described in
@ref{Debugging}.  Multiple @samp{-w} options are allowed.
@item -W@var{name}
Inhibit warning @var{name}.  Multiple @samp{-W} options are allowed.
@item -E
Inhibit all error messages.
@item -C
Enable compatibility mode.
@item -d@var{cs}
@itemx -d@var{name}=s
Define @var{c} or @var{name} to be a string @var{s}; @var{c} must be a
one-letter @var{name}.
@item -f@var{fam}
Use @var{fam} as the default font family.
@item -m@var{name}
Read in the file @file{tmac.@var{name}}.  Normally this will be searched
for in the library directory of @code{groff}.
@item -n@var{num}
Number the first page @var{num}.
@item -o@var{list}
Output only pages in @var{list}, which is a comma-separated list of page
ranges; @var{n} means print page @var{n}, @samp{@var{m}-@var{n}} means
print every page between @var{m} and @var{n}, @samp{-@var{n}} means
print every page up to @var{n}, @samp{@var{n}-} means print every page
from @var{n}.  @code{gtroff} will exit after printing the last page in
the list.
@item -r@var{cn}
@itemx -r@var{name}=@var{n}
Set number register @var{c} or @var{name} to @var{n}; @var{c} must be a
one-letter @var{name}; @var{n} can be any troff numeric expression.
@item -F@var{dir}
Search @var{dir} for subdirectories dev@var{name} (@var{name} is the
name of the device) for the @file{DESC} file and font files before the
normal directory.
@item -M@var{dir}
Search directory @var{dir} for macro files before the normal directory.
@item -I@var{dir}
This option is as described in @ref{gsoelim}.  It implies the @samp{-s}
option.
@end table


@node Environment, Invocation Examples, Options, Invoking groff
@section Environment
@cindex environment variables
@cindex variables in environment

There are also several environment variables which can modify the
behavior of @code{groff}.

@table @code
@item GROFF_COMMAND_PREFIX
@tindex GROFF_COMMAND_PREFIX
If this is set to @var{X}, then @code{groff} will run
@var{X}@code{troff} instead of @code{gtroff}.  This also applies to
@code{tbl}, @code{pic}, @code{eqn}, @code{grn}, @code{refer}, and
@code{soelim}.  It does not apply to @code{grops}, @code{grodvi},
@code{grotty}, @code{grohtml}, @code{grolj4}, and @code{gxditview}.
@item GROFF_TMAC_PATH
@tindex GROFF_TMAC_PATH
A colon separated list of directories in which to search for macro
files.
@item GROFF_TYPESETTER
@tindex GROFF_TYPESETTER
The default output device.
@item GROFF_FONT_PATH
@tindex GROFF_FONT_PATH
A colon separated list of directories in which to search for the
@code{dev}@var{name} directory.
@item PATH
@tindex PATH
The search path for commands executed by @code{groff}.
@item GROFF_TMPDIR
@tindex GROFF_TMPDIR
@tindex TMPDIR
The directory in which temporary files will be created.  If this is not
set and @code{TMPDIR} is set, temporary files will be created in that
directory.  Otherwise temporary files will be created in @code{/tmp}.
The @code{grops} and @code{grefer} commands can create temporary files.
@end table


@node Invocation Examples,  , Environment, Invoking groff
@section Invocation Examples
@cindex invocation examples
@cindex examples of invocation

This section will list several common uses of @code{groff} and the
command line which will accomplish it.

@example
groff file
@end example

@noindent
This command processes @var{file} without a macro package or a
preprocessor.  The output device is the default, @var{ps}, and the
output is sent to stdout.

@example
groff -t -mandoc -Tascii file | less
@end example

@noindent
This is basically what a call to @code{man} does.  The manual page
@var{file} is processed with the @code{-mandoc} macros (which in turn
either call the @code{-man} or the @code{-mdoc} macro package), using
the @code{tbl} preprocessor and the @sc{ascii} output device.  Finally,
the result is displayed with the @code{less} pager.

@example
groff -X -me file
@end example

@noindent
Preview @var{file} with @code{gxditview}, using the @code{-me} macro
package.

@example
groff -man -rD1 -z file
@end example

@noindent
Check @var{file} with the @code{-man} macro package, forcing
double-sided printing---don't produce any output.

@subsection @code{grog}

@code{grog} reads files and guesses which of the @code{groff}
preprocessors and/or macro packages are are required for formatting
them, and prints the @code{groff} command including those options on the
standard output.  The options generated are one of @samp{-e},
@samp{-man}, @samp{-me}, @samp{-mm}, @samp{-ms}, @samp{-p}, @samp{-R},
@samp{-g}, @samp{-s}, and @samp{-t}.

A filename of @samp{-} is taken to refer to the standard input.  If no
files are specified the standard input will be read.  Any specified
options will be included in the printed command.  No space is allowed
between options and their arguments.  For example,

@example
grog -Tdvi paper.ms
@end example

@noindent
will guess the appropriate command to print @file{paper.ms} and then
print it to the command line after adding the @samp{-Tdvi} option.  If
you want to directly execute it, enclose the call to @code{grog} in
backquotes on the @sc{Unix} shell prompt:

@example
`grog -Tdvi paper.ms` > paper.dvi
@end example

@noindent
As you can see, it is still necessary to redirect the output to
something meaningful (i.e.@: either a file or a pager program like
@code{less}).



@node Tutorial for Macro Users, Macro Packages, Invoking groff, Top
@chapter Tutorial for Macro Users
@cindex tutorial for macro users
@cindex macro tutorial for users
@cindex user's tutorial for macros
@cindex user's macro tutorial

Most users tend to use a macro package to format their papers.  This
means that the whole breadth of @code{groff} is not neccessary for most
people.  This chapter covers the material needed to efficiently use a
macro package.

@menu
* Basics::                      
* Common Features::             
@end menu


@node Basics, Common Features, Tutorial for Macro Users, Tutorial for Macro Users
@section Basics
@cindex basics

This section covers some of the basic concepts you will need to
understand to use a macro package.@footnote{This section is derived from
@cite{Writing Papers with nroff using -me} by Eric P.@w{ }Allman.}
References are made throughout to more detailed information, if desired.

@code{gtroff} reads an input file prepared by the user and outputs a
formatted paper suitable for publication or framing.  The input consists
of text, or words to be printed, and embedded commands (@dfn{requests}
and @dfn{escapes}), which tell @code{gtroff} how to format the printed
copy.  For more detail on this @pxref{Embedded Commands}.

The word @dfn{argument} is used in this manual to mean a word or number
which appears on the same line as a request which modifies the meaning
of that request.  For example, the request

@example
.sp
@end example

@noindent
spaces one line, but

@example
.sp 4
@end example

@noindent
spaces four lines.  The number@w{ }4 is an argument to the @code{sp}
request which says to space four lines instead of one.  Arguments are
separated from the request and from each other by spaces.  More details
on this can be found in @ref{Request Arguments}.

The primary function of @code{gtroff} is to collect words from input
lines, fill output lines with those words, justify the right hand margin
by inserting extra spaces in the line, and output the result.  For
example, the input:

@example
Now is the time
for all good men
to come to the aid
of their party.
Four score and seven
years ago,...
@end example

@noindent
will be read, packed onto output lines, and justified to produce:

@quotation
Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of their party.
Four score and seven years ago,...
@end quotation

@cindex break
@cindex line break
Sometimes you may want to start a new output line even though the line
you are on is not yet full; for example, at the end of a paragraph.  To
do this you can cause a @dfn{break}, which starts a new output line.
Some requests cause a break automatically, as do blank input lines and
input lines beginning with a space.

Not all input lines are text to be formatted.  Some of the input lines
are requests which describe how to format the text.  Requests always
have a period or an apostrophe (@samp{'}) as the first character of the
input line.

The text formatter also does more complex things, such as automatically
numbering pages, skipping over page boundaries putting footnotes in the
correct place, and so forth.

Here a few hints for preparing text for input to @code{gtroff}.  First,
keep the input lines short.  Short input lines are easier to edit, and
@code{gtroff} will pack words onto longer lines for you anyhow.  In
keeping with this, it is helpful to begin a new line after every period,
comma, or phrase, since common corrections are to add or delete
sentences or phrases.  Secondly, do not hyphenate words at the end of
lines---@code{gtroff} is smart enough to hyphenate words for you as
needed, but is not smart enough to take hyphens out and join a word back
together.  Also, words such as ``mother-in-law'' should not be broken
over a line, since then you will get a space where not wanted, such as
``@w{mother- in}-law''.

@findex ls
@cindex double spacing
@cindex spacing
@code{gtroff} will double space output text automatically if you use the
request @w{@samp{.ls 2}}.  You can revert to single spaced mode by
typing @w{@samp{.ls 1}}.

A number of requests allow you to change the way the printed copy looks,
sometimes called the @dfn{layout} of the output page.  Most of these
requests adjust the placing of @dfn{white space} (blank lines or
spaces).

@findex bp
@cindex new page
The @samp{.bp} request starts a new page.

@findex sp
@cindex blank lines
@cindex empty lines
@cindex lines, empty
The request @w{@samp{.sp @var{N}}} leaves @var{N}@w{ }lines of blank
space.  @var{N}@w{ }can be omitted (meaning skip a single line) or can
be of the form @var{N}i (for @var{N}@w{ }inches) or @var{N}c (for
@var{N}@w{ }centimeters).  For example, the input:

@example
.sp 1.5i
My thoughts on the subject
.sp
@end example

@noindent
leaves one and a half inches of space, followed by the line ``My
thoughts on the subject'', followed by a single blank line.

@findex ce
@cindex centering lines
@cindex lines, centering
Text lines can be centered by using the @samp{.ce} request.  The line
after @samp{.ce} is centered (horizontally) on the page.  To center more
than one line, use @w{@samp{.ce @var{N}}} (where @var{N} is the number
of lines to center), followed by the @var{N}@w{ }lines.  If you want to
center many lines but don't want to count them, type:

@example
.ce 1000
lines to center
.ce 0
@end example

@noindent
The @w{@samp{.ce 0}} request tells @code{groff} to center zero more
lines, in other words, stop centering.

@findex br
@cindex line break
@cindex break
All of these requests cause a break; that is, they always start a new
line.  If you want to start a new line without performing any other
action, use @samp{.br}.


@node Common Features,  , Basics, Tutorial for Macro Users
@section Common Features
@cindex common features
@cindex features, common

@code{gtroff} provides very low level operations for formatting a
document.  There are many common routine operations which are done in
all documents.  These common operations are written into @dfn{macros}
and collected into a @dfn{macro package}.

All macro packages provide certain common capabilities which fall into
the following categories.

@subsection Paragraphs
@cindex paragraphs

One of the most common and most used capability is starting a paragraph.
There are a number of different types of paragraphs, any of which can be
initiated with macros supplied by the macro package.  Normally,
paragraphs start with a blank line and the first line indented, like the
text in this manual.  There are also block style paragraphs, which omit
the indentation:

@example
Some   men  look   at  constitutions   with  sanctimonious
reverence, and deem them like the ark of the covenant, too
sacred to be touched.
@end example

@noindent
And there are also indented paragraphs which begin with a tag or label
at the margin and the remaining text indented.

@example
one   This is  the first paragraph.  Notice  how the first
      line of  the resulting  paragraph lines up  with the
      other lines in the paragraph.
longlabel
      This  paragraph   had  a  long   label.   The  first
      character of text on the first line will not line up
      with  the  text  on  second  and  subsequent  lines,
      although they will line up with each other.
@end example

A variation of this is a bulleted list.
@c XXX description

@subsection Sections and Chapters

Most macro packages supply some form of section headers.  The simplest
kind is simply the heading on a line by itself in bold type.  Others
supply automatically numbered section heading or different heading
styles at different levels.  Some, more sophisticated, macro packages
supply macros for starting chapters and appendicies.

@subsection Headers and Footers

Every macro packages gives you some way to manipulate the headers and
footers (or @dfn{titles}) on each page.  Some packages will allow you to
have different ones on the even and odd pages (for material printed in a
book form).

The titles are called three-part titles, that is, there is a
left-justified part, a centered part, and a right-justified part.  An
automatically generated page number may be put in any of these fields
with the @samp{%} character (@pxref{Page Layout} for more details).

@subsection Page Layout

Most macro packages let you specify top and bottom margins and other
details about the appearance of the printed pages.

@subsection Displays
@cindex displays

Displays are sections of text to be set off from the body of the paper.
Major quotes, tables, and figures are types of displays, as are all the
examples used in this document.

@cindex quotes, major
@cindex major quotes
@dfn{Major quotes} are quotes which are several lines long, and hence
are set in from the rest of the text without quote marks around them.

@cindex list
A @dfn{list} is an indented, single spaced, unfilled display.  Lists
should be used when the material to be printed should not be filled and
justified like normal text, such as columns of figures or the examples
used in this paper.

@cindex keep
A @dfn{keep} is a display of lines which are kept on a single page if
possible.  An example of where you would use a keep might be a diagram.
Keeps differ from lists in that lists may be broken over a page boundary
whereas keeps will not.

@cindex keep, floating
@cindex floating keep
Floating keeps move relative to the text.  Hence, they are good for
things which will be referred to by name, such as ``See figure@w{ }3''.
A floating keep will appear at the bottom of the current page if it will
fit; otherwise, it will appear at the top of the next page.  Meanwhile,
the surrounding text will `flow' around the keep, thus leaving now blank
areas.

@subsection Footnotes and annotations
@cindex footnotes
@cindex annotations

There are a number of requests to save text for later printing.
@dfn{Footnotes} are printed at the bottom of the current page.  Delayed
text is intended to be a variant form of footnote; the text is printed
only when explicitly called for, such as at the end of each chapter.

@cindex delayed text
@dfn{Delayed text} is very similar to a footnote except that it is
printed when called for explicitly.  This allows a list of references to
appear (for example) at the end of each chapter, as is the convention in
some disciplines.

Most macro packages which supply this functionality also supply a means
of automatically numbering either type of annotation.

@subsection Table of Contents
@cindex table of contents
@cindex contents, table of

@dfn{Tables of contents} are a type of delayed text having a tag
(usually the page number) attached to each entry after a row of dots.
The table accumulates throughout the paper until printed, usually after
the paper has ended.  Many macro packages will provide the ability to
have several tables of contents (i.e.@: one standard one, one for
tables, etc).

@subsection Indices
@cindex index

While some macro packages will use the term @dfn{index}, none actually
provide that functionality.  The facilities they call indices are
actually more appropriate for tables of contents.

@subsection Paper formats
@cindex paper formats

Some macro packages provide stock formats for various kinds of
documents.  Many of them provide a common format for the title and
opening pages of a technical paper.  The @code{-mm} macros in particular
provide formats for letters and memoranda.

@subsection Multiple Columns

Some macro packages (except @code{-man}) provide the ability to have two
or more columns on a page.

@subsection Font and Size changes

The built-in font and size functions are not always intuitive, so all
macro packages provide macros to make these operations simpler.

@subsection Predefined Strings

Most macro packages provide various predefined strings for a variety of
uses, examples are sub- and superscripts, printable dates, quotes and
various special characters.

@subsection Preprocessor Support

All macro packages provide support for the various preprocessors.

@subsection Configuration and Customization

Some macro packages provide means of customizing many of details of how
the package behaves.  This ranges from setting the default type size to
changing the appearance of section headers.



@node Macro Packages, Programming Tutorial, Tutorial for Macro Users, Top
@chapter Macro Packages
@cindex macro packages
@cindex packages, macros

This chapter documents the main macro packages that come with
@code{groff}.

@menu
* -man::                        
* -mdoc::                       
* -ms::                         
* -me::                         
* -mm::                         
@end menu


@node -man, -mdoc, Macro Packages, Macro Packages
@section -man
@cindex @code{-man}

@c XXX documentation


@node -mdoc, -ms, -man, Macro Packages
@section -mdoc
@cindex @code{-mdoc}

@c XXX documentation


@node -ms, -me, -mdoc, Macro Packages
@section -ms
@cindex @code{-ms}

@c XXX documentation


@node -me, -mm, -ms, Macro Packages
@section -me
@cindex @code{-me}

@c XXX documentation


@node -mm,  , -me, Macro Packages
@section -mm
@cindex @code{-mm}

@c XXX documentation



@node Programming Tutorial, Preprocessors, Macro Packages, Top
@chapter Programming Tutorial
@cindex programming tutorial
@cindex tutorial for programming

This chapter covers @strong{all} of the facilities of @code{gtroff}.  If
you are intending to use a macro package, you probably do not want to
read this chapter.

@menu
* Text::                        
* Input Conventions::           
* Measurements::                
* Expressions::                 
* Identifiers::                 
* Embedded Commands::           
* Registers::                   
* Manipulating Filling and Adjusting::  
* Manipulating Hyphenation::    
* Manipulating Spacing::        
* Tabs and Fields::             
* Character Translations::      
* Line Layout::                 
* Page Layout::                 
* Page Control::                
* Fonts::                       
* Sizes::                       
* Strings::                     
* Conditionals and Loops::      
* Writing Macros::              
* Page Motions::                
* Drawing Requests::            
* Traps::                       
* Diversions::                  
* Environments::                
* I/O::                         
* Postprocessor Access::        
* Miscellaneous::               
* Debugging::                   
* Implementation Differences::  
* Summary::                     
@end menu


@node Text, Input Conventions, Programming Tutorial, Programming Tutorial
@section Text
@cindex text

@code{gtroff} input files contain text with control commands
interspersed throughout.  But, even without control codes, @code{gtroff}
will still do several things with your text: filling and adjusting,
adding additional space after sentences, hyphenating and inserting
implicit line breaks.

@menu
* Filling and Adjusting::       
* Hyphenation::                 
* Sentences::                   
* Tab Stops::                   
* Implicit Line Breaks::        
@end menu

@node Filling and Adjusting, Hyphenation, Text, Text
@subsection Filling and Adjusting
@cindex filling and adjusting
@cindex adjusting and filling

When @code{gtroff} reads in text it collects words from input and fits
as many of them together on one output line as it can.  This is known as
@dfn{filling}.

Once @code{gtroff} has a @dfn{filled} line it will try to @dfn{adjust}
it.  which means it will widen the spacing between words until the text
reaches the right margin (in the default adjustment mode).  Extra spaces
between words are preserved, but spaces at the end of lines are ignored.
Spaces at the front of a line will cause a @dfn{break} (breaks will be
explained in @ref{Implicit Line Breaks})

@xref{Manipulating Filling and Adjusting}.

@node Hyphenation, Sentences, Filling and Adjusting, Text
@subsection Hyphenation
@cindex hyphenation

Since the odds of finding a set of words, for every output line, which
will fit nicely on a line without inserting excessive amounts of space
between words is not great, @code{gtroff} will hyphenate words so that
lines can be justified without there being too much space between words.
It uses an internal hyphenation algorithm, to indicate which words can
be hyphenated and how to do so.  When a word is hyphenated the first
part of the word will be added to the current filled line being output
(with an attached hyphen), and the other portion will be added to the
next line to be filled.

@xref{Manipulating Hyphenation}.

@node Sentences, Tab Stops, Hyphenation, Text
@subsection Sentences
@cindex sentences

Although it is often debated, some typesetting rules say there should be
different amounts of space after various puctuation marks.  For example,
a period at the end of a sentence should have twice as much space
following it as would a comma or a period as part of an abbreviation.

@cindex sentence spaces
@cindex spaces between sentences
@cindex french-spacing
@code{gtroff} does this by flagging certain characters (normally
@samp{!}, @samp{?} and @samp{.}) as @dfn{end of sentence} characters.
When @code{gtroff} encounters one of these characters at the end of a
line it will append two @dfn{sentence spaces} in the formatted output.
(Thus, one of the conventions mentioned in @ref{Input Conventions}).

@c XXX also describe how characters like ) are treated here -jjc
@c gotta do some research on this -trent

@node Tab Stops, Implicit Line Breaks, Sentences, Text
@subsection Tab Stops
@cindex tab stops
@cindex stops, tabulator

@code{gtroff} translates @dfn{tabulator stops}, also called @dfn{tabs},
in the input into movements to the next tab stop.  These tab stops are
initially located every half inch across the page.  Using this you can
make simple tables.  However, this can often be deceptive as the
appearance (and width) of your text on a terminal and the results from
@code{gtroff} can vary greatly.

Also, a possible sticking point is that lines beginning with tab
characters will still be filled, again producing unexpected results.
For example, the following input

@multitable {12345678} {12345678} {12345678} {12345678}
@item
@tab 1 @tab 2 @tab 3
@item
@tab   @tab 4 @tab 5
@end multitable

@noindent
will produce

@multitable {12345678} {12345678} {12345678} {12345678} {12345678} {12345678} {12345678}
@item
@tab 1 @tab 2 @tab 3 @tab   @tab 4 @tab 5
@end multitable

@xref{Tabs and Fields}.

@node Implicit Line Breaks,  , Tab Stops, Text
@subsection Implicit Line Breaks
@cindex implicit line breaks
@cindex implicit breaks of lines
@cindex line, implicit breaks
@cindex break
@cindex break, implicit
@cindex line break

An important concept in @code{gtroff} is the @dfn{break}.  When a break
occurs, @code{gtroff} will output the partially filled line
(unadjusted), and resume collecting and filling text on the next output
line.

@cindex blank line
@cindex empty line
@cindex line, blank
There are several ways to cause a break in @code{gtroff}.  A blank line
will not only cause a break, but it will also cause a one line vertical
space (effectively a blank line) to be output.

A line which begins with a space will cause a break and the space will
be output at the beginning of the next line.  Note that this space isn't
adjusted, even in fill mode.

The end of file will also cause a break (otherwise the last line of your
document may vanish!)

Certain requests also cause breaks, implicitly or explicity.  This will
be discussed later.

@xref{Manipulating Filling and Adjusting}.


@node Input Conventions, Measurements, Text, Programming Tutorial
@section Input Conventions
@cindex input conventions
@cindex conventions for input

Since @code{gtroff} does filling automatically, it is traditional in
@code{groff} not to try and type things in as nicely formatted
paragraphs.  These are some conventions commonly used when typing
@code{gtroff} text:

@itemize @bullet{}
@item
Break lines after punctuation, particularily at the end of sentences,
and in other logical places.  Keep separate phrases on lines by
themselves, as entire phrases are often added or deleted when editing.
@item
Try to keep lines less than 40-60@w{ }characters, to allow space for
inserting more text.
@item
Do not try to do any formatting in a WYSIWYG manner (i.e.@: don't try
and use spaces to get proper indentation).
@end itemize


@node Measurements, Expressions, Input Conventions, Programming Tutorial
@section Measurements
@cindex measurements

@cindex units of measurement
@cindex basic units
@cindex machine units
@cindex measurement units
@code{gtroff} (like any other programs) requires numeric parameters to
specify various measurements.  Most numeric parameters@footnote{those
that specify vertical or horizontal motion or a type size} may have a
@dfn{measurement unit} attached.  These units are specified as a single
character which immediately follows the number or expression.  Each of
these units are understood, by @code{gtroff}, to be a multiple of its
@dfn{basic unit}.  So, whenever a different measurement unit is
specified @code{gtroff} converts this into its @dfn{basic units}.  This
basic unit, represented by a @samp{u}, is a device dependent measurement
which is quite small, ranging from 1/75th to 1/72000th of an inch; all
other units are converted eventually to basic units.  The values may be
given as fractional numbers---nevertheless, fractional basic units are
always rounded to integers.

Some of the measurement units are completely independent of any of the
current settings (e.g.@: type size) of @code{gtroff}.

@table @samp
@item i
@cindex inch
@cindex @code{i} unit
@cindex unit, @code{i}
Inches.  An antiquated measurement unit still in use in certain
backwards countries.  One inch is equal to 2.54@dmn{cm}.
@item c
@cindex centimeter
@cindex @code{c} unit
@cindex unit, @code{c}
Centimeters.  One centimeter is equal to 0.3937@dmn{in}.
@item p
@cindex points
@cindex @code{p} unit
@cindex unit, @code{p}
Points.  This is a typesetter's measurement used for measure type size.
It is 72@w{ }points to an inch.
@item P
@cindex pica
@cindex @code{P} unit
@cindex unit, @code{P}
Pica.  Another typesetting measurement.  6@w{ }Picas to an inch (and
12@w{ }points to a pica).
@item s
@itemx z
@cindex @code{s} unit
@cindex unit, @code{s}
@cindex @code{z} unit
@cindex unit, @code{z}
@xref{Fractional Type Sizes}, for a discussion of these units.
@end table

The other measurements understood by @code{gtroff} are dependent on
settings currently in effect in @code{gtroff}.  These are very useful
for specifying measurements which should look proper with any size of
text.

@table @samp
@item m
@cindex em unit
@cindex @code{m} unit
@cindex unit, @code{m}
Ems.  This unit is equal to the current font size in points.  So called
because it is @emph{approximately} the width of the letter@w{ }@samp{m}
in the current font.
@item n
@cindex en unit
@cindex @code{n} unit
@cindex unit, @code{n}
Ens.  This is half of an em.
@item v
@cindex vertical space
@cindex space, vertical
@cindex @code{v} unit
@cindex unit, @code{v}
Vertical space.  This is equivalent to the current line spacing.
@xref{Sizes}, for more information about this.
@item M
@cindex @code{M} unit
@cindex unit, @code{M}
100ths of an em.
@end table

@xref{Fractional Type Sizes}.

@menu
* Default Units::               
@end menu

@node Default Units,  , Measurements, Measurements
@subsection Default Units
@cindex default units
@cindex units, default

Many requests take a default unit.  While this can be helpful at times,
it can cause strange errors in some expressions.  For example, the line
length request expects em's.  Here are several attempts to get a line
length of 3.5@w{ }inches and the results:

@example
3.5i      @result{}   3.5i
7/2       @result{}   0i
7/2i      @result{}   0i
7i/2      @result{}   .1i
7i/2u     @result{}   3.5i
@end example

@noindent
As you can see, the safest way to specify measurements is to always
attach a scaling indicator.


@node Expressions, Identifiers, Measurements, Programming Tutorial
@section Expressions
@cindex expressions

@code{gtroff} has most of operators common to other languages:

@c XXX more details; examples

@itemize @bullet
@item
@cindex arithmetic operators
@cindex operators, arithmetic
@findex +
@findex -
@findex /
@findex *
@findex %
Arithmetic: @samp{+} (addition), @samp{-} (subtraction), @samp{/}
(division), @samp{*} (multiplication), @samp{%} (modulo).
@item
@cindex comparison operators
@cindex operators, comparison
@findex <
@findex >
@findex >=
@findex <=
@findex =
@findex ==
Comparison: @samp{<} (less than), @samp{>} (greater than), @samp{<=}
(less than or equal), @samp{>=} (greater than or equal), @samp{=}
(equal), @samp{==} (the same as @samp{=}).
@item
@cindex logical operators
@cindex operators, logical
@findex &
@findex :
Logical: @samp{&} (logical and), @samp{:} (logical or).
@item
@cindex unary operators
@cindex operators, unary
@findex -
@findex +
@findex !
Unary operators: @samp{-} (negating, i.e.@: changing the sign), @samp{+}
(just for completeness; does nothing in expressions), @samp{!} (logical
not).  See below for the use of unary operators in motion requests.
@c XXX (if/while only??)
@item
@cindex extremum operators
@cindex operators, extremum
@findex >?
@findex <?
Extremum: @samp{>?} (maximum), @samp{<?} (minimum).  For example,
@samp{5>?3} yields@w{ }@samp{5}.
@c XXX add example
@item
@cindex scaling operator
@cindex operator, scaling
Scaling: @code{(@var{c};@var{e})}.  Evaluate @var{e} using @var{c} as
the default scaling indicator.  If @var{c} is missing, ignore scaling
indicators in the evaluation of @var{e}.
@end itemize

@cindex parentheses
@findex (
@findex )
Parentheses may be used as in any other language.  However, in
@code{gtroff} they are necessary to ensure order of evaluation.
@code{gtroff} has no operator precedence; expressions are evaluated left
to right.  This means that @samp{3+5*4} is evaluated as if it were
parenthesized like @samp{(3+5)*4}, not as @samp{3+(5*4)}, like you may
expect.

@findex +
@findex -
@findex |
@cindex motion operators
@cindex operators, motion
For many requests which cause a motion on the page, the unary operators
work differently.  The @samp{+} and @samp{-} operators indicate a motion
relative to the current position (down or up, respectively).  The
@samp{|} operator indicates an absolute position on the page or input
line.
@c XXX (????)
@samp{+} and @samp{-} are also treated differently by the @code{nr}
request.
@c XXX (?), add xref

@cindex space characters in expressions
@cindex expressions and space characters
Due to the way arguments are parsed, spaces are not allowed in
expressions, unless the entire expression is surrounded by parentheses.

@xref{Request Arguments}, and @ref{Conditionals and Loops}.


@node Identifiers, Embedded Commands, Expressions, Programming Tutorial
@section Identifiers
@cindex identifiers

@findex \
@findex [
@findex ]
@findex ?
Like any other language, @code{gtroff} has rules for properly formed
@dfn{identifiers}.  In @code{gtroff} an identifier can be made up of
almost any printable character.  The only exception are characters which
are interpreted by @code{gtroff} (backslash, square brackets, and
@samp{?}).  So, for example, any of the following is valid.

@example
br
PP
(l
end-list
@@_
@end example

@findex \A
You can test whether an identifier is valid in @code{gtroff} with the
@code{\A} escape.  It expands to@w{ }1 or@w{ }0 according to whether its
argument (given in quotes) is or is not acceptable as the name of a
string, macro, diversion, number register, environment, or font.  It
will return@w{ }0 if no argument is given.  This is useful if you want
to look up user input in some sort of associative table.

@c XXX add xrefs above

Identifiers in @code{gtroff} can be any length, but, in some contexts,
@code{gtroff} needs to be told where identifiers end and text begins
(and in different ways depending on their length).

@findex (
@findex [
@findex ]
@itemize @bullet{}
@item
Single character.
@item
Two characters.  Must be prefixed with @samp{(} in some situations.
@item
Arbitrary length (@code{gtroff} only).  Must be bracketed with @samp{[}
and@w{ }@samp{]} in some situations.  Any length identifier can be put
in brackets.
@end itemize

Unlike many other programming languages, undefined identifiers are
silently ignored or expanded to nothing.

@c XXX add info about -ww command line option.

@xref{Interpolating Registers}, and @ref{Strings}.


@node Embedded Commands, Registers, Identifiers, Programming Tutorial
@section Embedded Commands
@cindex embedded commands
@cindex commands, embedded

With most documents you need more funtionality beyond filling, adjusting
and implicit line breaking.  In order to gain further functionality,
@code{gtroff} allows commands to be embedded into your text, in two
ways.

The first is a @dfn{request} which takes up an entire line, and does
some large scale operation (e.g.@: break lines, start new pages).

The other is an @dfn{escape} which can be embedded anywhere in your
text, or even as an argument to a request.
@c XXX (Not always?)
Escapes generally do more minor operations like sub- and superscripts,
print a symbol, etc.

@menu
* Requests::                    
* Macros::                      
* Escapes::                     
@end menu

@node Requests, Macros, Embedded Commands, Embedded Commands
@subsection Requests
@cindex requests

@cindex control character
@cindex character, control
@findex '
@findex .
A request line begins with a control character, which is either a single
quote (@samp{'}) or a period (@samp{.}).  These can be changed;
@xref{Character Translations}, for details.  After this there may be
optional tabs or spaces followed by an identifier which is the name of
the request.  This may be followed by any number of space separated
arguments.

@findex \&
If you want to begin a line with a control character without it being
interpreted, precede it with @code{\&}.  This represents a zero width
space, which means it will not affect your output.

In most cases you will use the period as a control character.  Several
requests will cause a break; using the single quote control character
will prevent this.

@menu
* Request Arguments::           
@end menu

@node Request Arguments,  , Requests, Requests
@subsubsection Request Arguments
@cindex request arguments
@cindex arguments to requests

Arguments to requests (and macros) are processed much like the shell:
The line is split into arguments according to spaces.  An argument which
is intended to contain spaces can either be enclosed in quotes (single
or double), or have the spaces @dfn{escaped} with backslashes.

So, for example:

@example
.uh The Mouse Problem
.uh "The Mouse Problem"
.uh The\ Mouse\ Problem
@end example

@noindent
The first line is the @code{uh} macro being called with 3 arguments,
@samp{The}, @samp{Mouse}, and @samp{Problem}.  The latter two have the
same effect or calling the @code{uh} macro with one argument @samp{The
Mouse Problem}.

Note, however, that the @code{ds} request works differently.

@xref{Strings}.

@node Macros, Escapes, Requests, Embedded Commands
@subsection Macros
@cindex macros

@code{gtroff} has a @dfn{macro} facility for defining a series of lines
which can be invoked by name.  They are called in the same manner as
requests---arguments also may be passed in the same manner.

@xref{Writing Macros}, and @ref{Request Arguments}.

@node Escapes,  , Macros, Embedded Commands
@subsection Escapes
@cindex escapes

@findex \e
@findex \\
Escapes may occur anywhere in the input to @code{gtroff}.  They begin
with a backslash and are followed by a single character which indicates
the function to be performed.  If you want to have a backslash appear in
your document, you should use the escape sequence @code{\e}.  Merely
escaping the backslash with another backslash will work in @emph{some}
curcumstances.

Many escapes have no parameters; those that do, do so in one of two
ways.  For escapes which require an identifier there must be a way for
@code{gtroff} to tell where the identifier ends and the text begins.  It
assumes that the next single character is the identifier, but if that
character is an opening parenthesis, it takes the next two characters as
the identifier; and if the next character is an opening bracket, all
characters until a closing bracket are taken as the identifier.  Note
that in the second case there is no closing parenthesis.  For example:

@example
\fB
\n(XX
\*[TeX]
@end example

@findex '
Other escapes may require several arguments and/or some special format.
In these cases the @dfn{argument} is enclosed in single quotes
@c XXX (not required??)
and the enclosing text is decoded according to what that escape expects.

@example
\l'1.5i\(bu'
@end example

@findex \\
@findex \e
@findex \E
If you want to have a backslash appear in your output, you can use
several escapes: @code{\\}, @code{\e} or @code{\E}.  These are very
similar, and only differ with respect to being used in macros or
diversions.  @xref{Copy-in Mode}, and @ref{Diversions}, for more
information.

@xref{Identifiers}.

@menu
* Comments::                    
@end menu

@node Comments,  , Escapes, Escapes
@subsubsection Comments
@cindex comments

@findex \"
Probably one of the most@footnote{Unfortunately, this is a lie.  But
hopefully future @code{gtroff} hackers will believe it :-)} common forms
of escapes is the comment.  They begin with the @code{\"} escape and end
at the end of the input line.

This may sound simple, but it can be tricky to keep the comments from
interfering with the apperarance of your final outupt.

@findex ds
If the escape is to the right of some text or a request, that portion of
the line will be ignored, but the space leading up to it will be noticed
by @code{gtroff}.  This only affects the @code{.ds} request.
@c XXX (any others?)

One possibly irritating idiosyncracy is that you must not use tabs to
line up your comments.  Tabs are not treated as white space between the
request and macro arguments.

@cindex undefined request
@cindex request, undefined
If you have a comment on a line by itself, it will be treated as a blank
line, because after eliminating the comment, that is all that remains.
So, it is common to start the line with @code{.\"} which will cause the
line to be treated as an undefined request.

Another commenting scheme seen sometimes is three consecutive single
quotes (@code{'''}) at the begining of a line.  This works, but
@code{gtroff} will give a warning about an undefined macro, which is
harmless, but irritating.

@findex \#
Now to avoid all this @code{gtroff} has a new comment mechanism using
the @code{\#} escape.  This escape works the same as @code{\"} except
that the newline is also ignored.

@findex ig
For large blocks of text, the @code{ig} request may be useful.
@xref{Strings}.


@node Registers, Manipulating Filling and Adjusting, Embedded Commands, Programming Tutorial
@section Registers
@cindex registers

Numeric variables in @code{gtroff} are called @dfn{registers}.  There
are a number of built-in registers, supplying anything from the date to
details of formatting parameters.

@xref{Identifiers}.

@menu
* Setting Registers::           
* Interpolating Registers::     
* Auto-increment::              
* Assigning Formats::           
* Built-in Registers::          
@end menu

@node Setting Registers, Interpolating Registers, Registers, Registers
@subsection Setting Registers
@cindex setting registers
@cindex registers, setting

@findex nr
@findex \R
Registers are defined resp.@: set via the @code{nr} request or the
@code{\R} escape.  For example, the following two lines are equivalent:

@example
.nr a 1
\R'a 1'
@end example

@findex rr
The @code{rr} request will remove the register specified by the
argument.

@findex rnn
The @code{rnn} request will rename a number register.  The format is
@w{@samp{.rnn @var{x} @var{y}}}, which will rename number register
@var{x} to @var{y}.

@findex aln
Aliases can be created for a number register.  The format is
@w{@samp{.aln @var{xx} @var{yy}}}, which will create an alias @var{xx}
for number register object named @var{yy}.  The new name and the old
name will be exactly equivalent.  If @var{yy} is undefined, a warning of
type @samp{reg} will be generated, and the request will be ignored.
@xref{Debugging}, for information about warnings.

@node Interpolating Registers, Auto-increment, Setting Registers, Registers
@subsection Interpolating Registers
@cindex interpolating registers
@cindex registers, interpolating

@findex \n
Numeric registers are @dfn{interpolated} via the @code{\n} escape.

@c XXX the following is wrong.  Should I say any more than the above??
@c This means that the value of the number register is expanded in-place
@c on the input line before any other actions, i.e. before requests and
@c escapes are interpreted.

@example
.nr as \na+\na
\n(as
@end example

@node Auto-increment, Assigning Formats, Interpolating Registers, Registers
@subsection Auto-increment
@cindex auto-increment
@cindex increment, automatic

@findex nr
Number registers can also be auto-incremented and auto-decremented.  You
can specify the increment resp.@: decrement factor with a third argument
to the @code{nr} request.  The default value is@w{ }0.  For example,

@example
.nr a 0 1
.nr xx 0 5
\n+a, \n+a, \n+a, \n+a, \n+a
.br
\n+(xx, \n+(xx, \n+(xx, \n+(xx, \n+(xx
@end example

@noindent
produces

@example
1, 2, 3, 4, 5
5, 10, 15, 20, 25
@end example

If you want to change the increment factor without changing the value of
a register, the following can be used.

@example
.nr a \na 10
@end example

@node Assigning Formats, Built-in Registers, Auto-increment, Registers
@subsection Assigning Formats
@cindex assigning formats
@cindex formats, assigning

@findex af
When a register is used in the text of an input file (as opposed to part
of an expression) it is textually replaced (or interpolated) with a
representation of that number.  This output format can be changed to a
variety of formats (numbers, roman numerals, etc).  This is done using
the @code{af} request.  The first argument to @code{af} is the name of
the number register to be changed, and the second argument is the output
format.  The following output formats are available:

@table @samp
@item 1
This is the default format, decimal numbers: 1, 2, 3,@w{ }@dots{}
@item 001
Decimal numbers with as many leading zeros as specified.  So, @samp{001}
would result in 001, 002, 003,@w{ }@dots{}
@item I
@cindex roman numerals
@cindex numerals, roman
Upper-case roman numerals: 0, I, II, III, IV,@w{ }@dots{}
@item i
Lower-case roman numerals: 0, i, ii, iii, iv,@w{ }@dots{}
@item A
Upper-case letters: A, B, C, @dots{},@w{ }Z, AA, AB,@w{ }@dots{}
@item a
Lower-case letters: a, b, c, @dots{},@w{ }z, aa, ab,@w{ }@dots{}
@end table

The following example will produce @samp{10, X, j, 010}:

@example
.nr a 10
.af a 1           \" the default format
\na,
.af a I
\na,
.af a a
\na,
.af a 001
\na
@end example

@findex \g
The @code{\g} escape returns the current format of the specified
register.  For example, @samp{\ga} after the previous example would
produce @samp{001}.

@node Built-in Registers,  , Assigning Formats, Registers
@subsection Built-in Registers
@cindex built-in registers
@cindex registers, built-in

The following lists some built-in registers which are not described
elsewhere in this manual.  Any register which begin with a @samp{.} is
read-only.  A complete listing of all built-in registers can be found in
@ref{Register Index}.

@table @code
@item .H
@vindex .H
Horizontal resolution in basic units.
@item .V
@vindex .V
Vertical resolution in basic units.
@item dw
@vindex dw
Day of the week (1-7).
@item dy
@vindex dy
Day of the year (1-31).
@item mo
@vindex mo
Current month (1-12).
@item year
@vindex year
The year.
@item yr
@vindex yr
The year minus@w{ }1900.  Unfortunately, the @sc{Unix} Version@w{ }7
troff documentation had a year@w{ }2000 bug: It incorrectly claimed that
@samp{\n(yr} was the last two digits of the year.  That claim has never
been true of either traditional @code{troff} or GNU @code{troff}.  If
you see old @code{troff} input that looks like this:

@example
'\" The following line stopped working after 1999
This document was formatted in 19\n(yr.
@end example

@noindent
you can correct it as follows:

@example
This document was formatted in \n[year].
@end example

@noindent
or, if you want to be portable to older @code{troff} versions, as
follows:

@example
.nr y4 1900+\n(yr
This document was formatted in \n(y4.
@end example

@item .c
@vindex .c
@itemx c.
@vindex c.
The current @emph{input} line number.
@item ln
@vindex ln
The current @emph{output} line number.
@item .x
@vindex .x
The major version number.  For example, if the version number is@w{
}1.03 then @code{.x} will contain@w{ }@samp{1}.
@item .y
@vindex .y
The minor version number.  For example, if the version number is@w{
}1.03 then @code{.y} will contain@w{ }@samp{03}.
@item .Y
@vindex .Y
The revision number of @code{groff}.
@item .g
@vindex .g
Always@w{ }1.  Macros should use this to determine whether they are
running under GNU @code{troff}.
@item .A
@vindex .A
If the current output device is @sc{ascii}, this is set to@w{ }1, zero
otherwise.
@item .P
@vindex .P
This register indicates whether the current page is actually being
printed, i.e., whether the @samp{-o} option is being used to only print
selected pages.  @xref{Options}, for more information.
@end table


@node Manipulating Filling and Adjusting, Manipulating Hyphenation, Registers, Programming Tutorial
@section Manipulating Filling and Adjusting
@cindex manipulating filling and adjusting
@cindex filling and adjusting, manipulating
@cindex adjusting and filling, manipulating
@cindex justifying text
@cindex text, justifying

@findex br
@cindex break
@cindex line break
Various ways of causing @dfn{breaks} were given in @ref{Implicit Line
Breaks}.  The @code{br} request will likewise cause a break.  Several
other requests will also cause breaks, but implicitly.  They are
@code{bp}, @code{ce}, @code{fi}, @code{fl}, @code{in}, @code{nf},
@code{sp}, and @code{ti}.

@findex nf
@findex fi
@vindex .u
Initially, @code{gtroff} will fill and ajust text to both margins.
Filling can be disabled via the @code{nf} request and re-enabled with
the @code{fi} request.  These implicitly disable and re-enable
adjusting.  Both of these will cause a break in the text currently being
filled.  The number register @code{.u} is equal to@w{ }1 in fill mode
and@w{ }0 in no-fill mode.

@findex ad
@findex na
Adjusting can be disabled with the @code{ad} request and re-enabled with
the @code{na} request.  The @code{ad} request takes a single argument to
indicate how to adjust text.

@table @samp
@item l
@cindex ragged-right
Adjust text to the left margin.  This produces what is traditionally
called ragged-right text.
@item r
@cindex ragged-left
Adjust text to the right margin, producing ragged-left text.
@item c
@cindex centered text
Center filled text.
@c XXX difference to .ce?
@item b
@itemx n
Justify to both margins.  This is default of @code{gtroff}.
@end table

With no argument to @code{ad}, @code{gtroff} will adjust lines the same
way it was the last time it was filling.  For example:

@example
text
.ad r
text
.ad c
text
.na
text
.ad  \" back to centering
text
@end example

@vindex .j
The current adjustment mode is available in the number register
@code{.j}.

@findex \p
The escape @code{\p} will cause a break and the remaining text to be
adjusted.

@cindex word space size
@cindex size of word space
@cindex space between words
@cindex sentence space size
@cindex size of sentence space
@cindex space between sentences
@findex ss
The @code{ss} request allows you to change the minimum size of a space
between filled words.  This request takes its units as one twelfth of
the space width parameter for the current font.  Initially both the word
space size and the sentence space size are@w{ }12.

If two arguments are given to the @code{ss} request, the second argument
gives the sentence space size.  If the second argument is not given, the
sentence space size will be the same as the word space size.  The
sentence space size is used in two circumstances: If the end of a
sentence occurs at the end of a line in fill mode, then both an
inter-word space and a sentence space will be added; if two spaces
follow the end of a sentence in the middle of a line, then the second
space will be a sentence space.  Note that the behaviour of @sc{Unix}
@code{troff} will be exactly that exhibited by GNU @code{troff} if a
second argument is never given to the @code{ss} request.  In GNU
@code{troff}, as in @sc{Unix} @code{troff}, you should always follow a
sentence with either a newline or two spaces.

@vindex .ss
@vindex .sss
The number registers @code{.ss} and @code{.sss} are the values of the
parameters set by the first and second arguments of the @code{ss}
request.

@findex ce
@cindex centering lines
@cindex lines, centering
The @code{ce} request will center text.  While the @w{@samp{ad c}}
request will also center text, it has the side effect of filling the
text.  The @code{.ce} request will not fill the text it affects.  This
request causes a break.

With no arguments, @code{ce} will fill the next line of text.  The
single argument @code{ce} takes is a number indicating the number of
lines to be centered.  If the argument is zero, centering is disabled.

A common idiom is to turn on centering for a large number of lines, and
then turn off centering when you are done with the centered text.  This
is useful for any request which takes a number of lines as an argument.

@example
.ce 1000
replace this
with
something
more interesting
@dots{}
.ce 0
@end example

@vindex .ce
The @code{.ce} number register contains the number of lines remaining to
be centered, as set by the @code{ce} request.

@cindex justifying text
@cindex text, justifying
@cindex right-justifying
@findex rj
@vindex .rj
A similar request is @code{rj} request which will justify unfilled text
to the right margin.  Its arguments are identical to the @code{ce}
request.  The @code{.rj} number register is the number of lines to be
right-justified as set by the @code{rj} request.


@node Manipulating Hyphenation, Manipulating Spacing, Manipulating Filling and Adjusting, Programming Tutorial
@section Manipulating Hyphenation
@cindex manipulating hyphenation
@cindex hyphenation, manipulating

As discussed in @ref{Hyphenation}, @code{gtroff} will hyphenate words.
There are a number of ways to influence how hyphenation is done.

@findex nh
@findex hy
@vindex .hy
Hyphenation can be turned off with the @code{nh} request, and turned
back on with the @code{hy} request.  However, the hyphenation facilities
of @code{gtroff} are far more flexible than this.  The @code{hy} request
can be used to tell @code{gtroff} to restrict hypenation to certain
cases.  The request takes a single numeric argument.  The current
hyphenation restrictions can be found in the number register @code{.hy}.

@table @samp
@item 1
The default argument, which indicates to hyphenate without restrictions.
@item 2
Do not hyphenate the last word on a page or column.
@item 4
Do not hyphenate the last two characters of a word.
@item 8
Do not hyphenate the first two characters of a word.
@end table

The values in the previous table are additive.  For example, the
value@w{ }12 causes @code{gtroff} to neither hyphenate the last two nor
the first two characters of a word.

@findex hlm
@vindex .hlc
@vindex .hlm
@findex \%
@cindex explicit hyphens
@cindex hyphen, explicit
The @code{hlm} request will set the maximum number of consecutive
hyphenated lines to the value given as the first argument.  If this
number is negative, there is no maximum.  The default value is@w{ }-1.
This value is associated with the current environment.  Only lines
output from an environment count towards the maximum associated with
that environment.  Hyphens resulting from @code{\%} are counted;
explicit hyphens are not.  The current setting of this is available in
the @code{.hlm} register.  Also the number of immediately preceding
consecutive hyphenated lines are available in the number register
@code{.hlc}.

@findex hw
The @code{hw} request allows you to specify how a specific word is to be
hyphenated.  It takes only one argument which is the word with hyphens
at the hyphenation points.  For example: 

@example
.hw in-sa-lub-rious
@end example

@noindent
This request can be used more than once.

@c XXX
@c In old versions of troff there was a
@c limited amount of space to store such information, fortunately,
@c with groff, this is no longer a restriction.

@findex \%
@cindex hyphenation character
@cindex character, hyphenation
@cindex disabling hyphenation
@cindex hyphenation, disabling
You can also tell @code{gtroff} how to hyphenate words on the fly with
the use of the @code{\%} escape, also known as the @dfn{hyphenation
character}.  Preceding a word with this character will prevent it from
being hyphenated, putting it in a word will indicate to @code{gtroff}
that the word may be hyphenated at that point.  Note that this mechanism
will only affect one word; if you want to change the hyphenation of a
word for the entire document, use the @code{hw} request.

@findex hc
The @code{hc} request allows you to change the hyphenation character.
The character specified as an argument will then work the same as the
@code{\%} escape, and, thus, no longer appear in the output.  Without
an argument it will return the hyphenation character to @code{\%}.

@cindex hyphenation patterns
@cindex pattern for hyphenation
@findex hpf
To further customize hyphenation the @code{hpf} request will read in a
file of hyphenation patterns.  This file will be searched for in the
same way that @file{tmac.@var{name}} is searched for when the
@samp{-m@var{name}} option is specified.

It should have the same format as the argument to the @code{\patterns}
primitive in @TeX{}; the letters appearing in this file are interpreted
as hyphenation codes.  A @samp{%} character in the patterns file
introduces a comment that continues to the end of the line.

@findex hla
@findex hpf
@pindex troffrc
@pindex troffrc-end
The set of hyphenation patterns is associated with the current language
set by the @code{hla} request.  The @code{hpf} request is usually
invoked by the @file{troffrc} or @file{troffrc-end} file.

@findex hcode
The @code{hcode} request has the following syntax:

@example
.hcode @var{c1 code1 c2 code2...}
@end example

It sets the hyphenation code of character @var{c1} to @var{code1} and
that of @var{c2} to @var{code2}.  A hyphenation code must be a single
input character (not a special character) other than a digit or a space.
Initially each lower-case letter has a hyphenation code, which is
itself, and each upper-case letter has a hyphenation code which is the
lower-case version of itself.

@cindex hyphenation margin
@cindex margin for hyphenation
@findex hym
@vindex .hym
The @code{hym} request will set the hyphenation margin to the value
given as its argument: when the current adjustment mode is not@w{
}@samp{b}, the line will not be hyphenated if the line is no more than
that amount short.  The default hyphenation margin is@w{ }0.  The
default scaling indicator for this request is@w{ }m.  The hyphenation
margin is associated with the current environment.  The current
hyphenation margin is available in the @code{.hym} register.

@cindex hyphenation space
@findex hys
@vindex .hys
The @code{hys} request sets the hyphenation space to the value given as
the first argument: when the current adjustment mode is@w{ }@samp{b},
don't hyphenate the line if the line can be justified by adding no more
than that amount of extra space to each word space.  The default
hyphenation space is@w{ }0.  The default scaling indicator for this
request is@w{ }m.  The hyphenation space is associated with the current
environment.  The current hyphenation space is available in the
@code{.hys} register.

@cindex soft hyphen character
@cindex character, soft hyphen
@findex shc
The @code{shc} request will set the soft hyphen character to the
character given as an argument.  If the argument is omitted, the soft
hyphen character will be set to the default character @code{\(hy}.  The
soft hyphen character is the character which will be inserted when a
word is hyphenated at a line break.  If the soft hyphen character does
not exist in the font of the character immediately preceding a potential
break point, then the line will not be broken at that point.  Neither
definitions (specified with the @code{char} request) nor translations
(specified with the @code{tr} request) are considered when finding the
soft hyphen character.

@findex hla
@findex hpf
@findex hw
@vindex .hla
@pindex troffrc
@pindex troffrc-end
The @code{hla} request will set the current hyphenation language to that
given by the first argument.  Hyphenation exceptions specified with the
@code{hw} request and hyphenation patterns specified with the @code{hpf}
request are both associated with the current hyphenation language.  The
@code{hla} request is usually invoked by the @file{troffrc} or the
@file{troffrc-end} files.  The current hyphenation language is available
in the number register @code{.hla}.


@node Manipulating Spacing, Tabs and Fields, Manipulating Hyphenation, Programming Tutorial
@section Manipulating Spacing
@cindex manipulating spacing
@cindex spacing, manipulating

@findex sp
The @code{sp} request will cause @code{gtroff} to space downwards the
distance specified as the first argument.  With no argument it will
advance 1@w{ }line.  A negative argument will cause @code{gtroff} to
move up the page the specified distance.  If the argument is preceded by
a @samp{|} @code{gtroff} will move that distance from the top of the
page.

@cindex double-spacing
@findex ls
@vindex .L
Often you may want your output to be double or triple spaced.  The
@code{ls} request will cause @code{troff} to output @var{n}-1 blank
lines after each line of text, where @var{n} is the argument given to
the @code{ls} request.  With no argument @code{gtroff} will go back to
single spacing.  The number register @code{.L} contains the current line
spacing setting.

@findex \x
@vindex .a
Sometimes, extra vertical spacing is only needed occasionally, i.e.@: to
allow space for a tall construct (like an equation).  The @code{\x}
escape will do this.  The escape is given a numerical argument (like
@samp{\x'3p'}).  If this number is positive extra vertical space will be
inserted below the current line.  A negative number will add space
above.  If this escape is used multiple times on the same line, the
maximum of the values is used.  The @code{.a} number register contains
the most recent extra vertical line space.

@c XXX
@example
... example of inline equation ...
@end example

@findex ns
@findex rs
@cindex no-space mode
@cindex mode, no-space
Spacing (either via @code{sp} or via blank lines) can be disabled with
the @code{ns} request.  This will enable @dfn{no-space mode}.  This mode
will end when actual text is output or the @code{rs} request is
encountered.  No-space mode will also prevent requests to advance to the
next page unless they are accompanied by a page number (@pxref{Page
Control}, for more information).


@node Tabs and Fields, Character Translations, Manipulating Spacing, Programming Tutorial
@section Tabs and Fields
@cindex tabs and fields
@cindex fields and tabs

@findex \t
Tab stops are much like those on a typewriter: a tab character (or the
@code{\t} escape) on input will cause horizontal motion to the next tab
stop.

@findex ta
Tab stops can be changed with the @code{ta} request.  This request takes
a series of numbers as arguments which indicate where each tab stop is
to be (overriding any previous settings).  These can be specified
absolutely, i.e.@: as the distance from the left margin.  For example,
the following wil set tab stops every one inch.

@example
.ta 1i 2i 3i 4i 5i 6i
@end example

Tab stops can also be specified relatively (using a leading @samp{+})
which means that the specified tab stop will be set that distance from
the previous tab stop.  For example, the following is equivalent to the
previous example.

@example
.ta 1i +1i +1i +1i +1i +1i
@end example

After the specified tab stops repeat values may be set for tabs beyond
the last one specified.  This is most commonly used to specify tabs set
at equal intervals.  The complete syntax for setting tabs is

@example
ta @var{n1} @var{n2} @dots{} @var{nn} T @var{r1} @var{r2} @dots{} @var{rn}
@end example

@noindent
This will set tabs at positions @var{n1}, @var{n2}, @dots{}, @var{nn}
and then set tabs at @var{nn}+@var{r1}, @var{nn}+@var{r2}, @dots{},
@var{nn}+@var{rn} and then at @var{nn}+@var{rn}+@var{r1},
@var{nn}+@var{rn}+@var{r2}, @dots{}, @var{nn}+@var{rn}+@var{rn}, and so
on.  For example the following is, yet again, the same as the previous
examples.

@example
.ta T 1i
@end example

The material in each tab column may be justified to the right or left
or centered in the column.  This is specified by appending an
@samp{R}, @samp{L} or @samp{C} to the number specifying that tab stop.
The default justification is @samp{L}.  Example:

@example
.ta 1i 2iC 2iR
@end example

@vindex .tabs
The number register @code{.tabs} contains a string representation of the
current tab settings suitable for use as an argument to the @code{ta}
request.

@findex tc
Normally @code{gtroff} will fill the space to the next tab stop with
spaces.  In some cases you may wish to change this.  The @code{tc}
request will do this.  With no argument @code{gtroff} will revert to
using spaces.

@subsection Leaders
@cindex leaders

@findex lc
Sometimes you may wish to use the @code{tc} request to fill a tab stop
with a given character, but also, you want to use normal tab stops on
the rest of the line.  For this @code{gtroff} provides an alternate tab
mechanism, called @dfn{leaders} which will do just that.  They are used
exclusively to produce a repeated run of characters to the next tab
stop.

You can declare what character will be repeated with the @code{lc}
request.  If you do not give it an argument, the leaders will act the
same as tabs.

@findex \a
Leader are invoked by using the @code{\a} escape while specifying the
@code{ta} request.

@cindex table of contents
@cindex contents, table of
Thus for a table of contents you may want to have tab stops defined so
that the section number is one tab stop, the title is the second with
the remaining space being filled with a line of dots and then the page
number slightly separated from the dots.

@example
.lc .
.ta .5iR 5i +.25i
1.1\tFoo\a\t12
@end example

@subsection Fields
@cindex fields

@findex fc
Fields are a more general way of laying out tabular data.

@code{fc}

@c XXX add explanation

@node Character Translations, Line Layout, Tabs and Fields, Programming Tutorial
@section Character Translations
@cindex character translations
@cindex translations of characters

@findex cc
@findex c2
@findex .
@findex '
The control character (@samp{.}) and the no-break control character
(@samp{'}) can be changed with the @code{cc} and @code{c2} requests,
respectively.  The single argument is the new character to be used.
With no argument the normal control character is restored.

@findex ec
@findex eo
The @code{eo} request will completely disable the escape mechanism.  The
@code{ec} request can be used to change the escape character from the
default @samp{\} to what is specified as an argument.  It can be also
used to re-enable the escape mechanism after an @code{eo} request.

@findex tr
The @code{tr} request will translate characters.

@c XXX more info

@findex trnt
@findex \!
@code{trnt} is the same as the @code{tr} request except that the
translations do not apply to text that is transparently throughput into
a diversion with @code{\!}.  @xref{Diversions}, for more information.
For example,

@example
.tr ab
.di x
\!.tm a
.di
.x
@end example

@noindent
will print @samp{b}; if @code{trnt} is used instead of @code{tr} it will
print @samp{a}.


@node Line Layout, Page Layout, Character Translations, Programming Tutorial
@section Line Layout
@cindex line layout
@cindex layout, line

@cindex dimensions, line
@cindex line dimensions
The following drawing shows the dimensions which @code{gtroff} uses for
placing a line of output onto the page.  They are labeled with the
request which manipulates that dimension.

@example
@group
              | -->| in |<--                   |
           -->| po |<-----------ll------------>|
              +----+----+----------------------+----+
              |    :    :                      :    |
              +----+----+----------------------+----+
@end group
@end example

@noindent
These dimensions are:

@ftable @code
@item po
@cindex left margin
@cindex margin, left
@cindex page offset
@cindex offset, page
@vindex .o
@dfn{Page offset}--This is the leftmost position of text on the final
output, defining the @dfn{left margin}.  It can be adjusted with the
@code{po} request, and the current setting can be found in the built-in
number register @code{.o}.  Note that this request does not cause a
break, so changing the page offset in the middle of text being filled
may not do what you expect.
@item in
@cindex indentation
@cindex line indentation
@vindex .i
@dfn{Indentation}--This is the distance from the left margin where text
will be printed.  This can be adjusted with the @code{in} request, and
the current setting can be found in the built-in number register.
@code{.i}.  This request causes a break.

@findex ti
@vindex .in
There is also the request @code{ti} which will cause one output line to
be indented, after which the indentation returns to@w{ }0.  This request
causes a break.  The number register @code{.in} is the indent that
applies to the current output line.
@item ll
@cindex line length
@cindex length of line
@vindex .l
@vindex .ll
@dfn{Line length}--This is the distance from the left margin to right
margin.  This can be adjusted with the @code{ll} request, and the
current setting can be found in the built-in number register @code{.l}
Note, as the figure implies, line length is not affected by the current
indentation.  The number register @code{.ll} is the line length that
applies to the current output line.
@end ftable

@example
.in +.5i
.ll -.5i
A bunch of really boring text which should
be indented from both margins.
Replace me with a better (and more) example!
.in -.5i
.ll +.5i
@end example


@node Page Layout, Page Control, Line Layout, Programming Tutorial
@section Page Layout
@cindex page layout
@cindex layout, page

@code{gtroff} provides some very primitive operations for controlling
page layout.

@cindex page length
@cindex length of page
@findex pl
@vindex .p
Troff lets you specify the @dfn{page length} via the @code{pl} request.
This is the length of the physical output page.  The current setting can
be found in the built-in number register @code{.p}.  Note that this only
specifies the size of the page, not the top and bottom margins.  Those
are not done by groff directly.  @xref{Traps}, for further information
on how to do this.

@cindex headers
@cindex footers
@cindex titles
Troff provides several operations which help in setting up top and
bottom titles (or headers and footers)

@cindex title line
@cindex three-part title
@findex tl
@findex %
The @code{tl} request will print a @dfn{title line}, which consists of
three parts: a left justified portion, a centered portion and a right
justified portion.  The argument to @code{tl} is specified as
@code{'@var{left}'@var{center}'@var{right}'}.  The @samp{%} character is
replaced with the current page number.  You can change this character
with the @code{pc} request (see below).

@cindex length of title line
@cindex title line, length
@findex lt
@vindex .lt
The title line is printed using its own line length, which is specified
with the @code{lt} request.  The current setting of this is available in
the @code{.lt} number register.

@cindex page number
@cindex number, page
@findex pn
The @code{pn} request will change the page number of the @emph{next}
page.  The only argument is the page number.

@vindex %
@vindex .pn
The current page number is stored in the number register @code{%}.  The
number register @code{.pn} contains the number of the next page: either
the value set by a @code{pn} request, or the number of the current page
plus@w{ }1.

@cindex changing the page number character
@cindex page number character, changing
@findex pc
The @code{pc} request will change the page number character (used by the
@code{tl} request) to a different character.  With no argument, this
mechanism is disabled.

@xref{Traps}.


@node Page Control, Fonts, Page Layout, Programming Tutorial
@section Page Control
@cindex page control
@cindex control, page

@findex bp
@findex pn
To stop processing the current page, and move to the next page, you can
invoke the @code{bp} request.  This request will also cause a break.  It
can also take an argument of what the next page should be numbered.  The
only difference between @code{bp} and @code{pn} is that @code{pn} does
not cause a break or actually eject a page.

@example
.de newpage
'bp
'sp .5i
.tl 'left top'center top'right top'
'sp .3i
..
@end example

@cindex orphan
@findex ne
Often you may want to make sure that you have a certain amount of space
before a new page occurs.  This is most useful to make sure that there
is not a single @dfn{orphan} line left at the bottom of a page.  The
@code{ne} request will ensure that there is a certain distance,
specified by the first argument, before the next page is triggered
(@pxref{Traps}, for further information).  The default unit for
@code{ne} is @code{v} and the default argument is@w{ }1@dmn{v}.

For example, to make sure that no fewer than 2@w{ }lines get orphaned,
you can do the following before each paragraph:

@example
.ne 2
.ti +5n
text
@end example

@findex sv
@findex os
@findex ne
@code{sv} is similar to the @code{ne} request; it reserves the specified
amount of vertical space.  If the desired amount of space exists before
the next trap (bottom page boundary), the space will be output
immediately.  If there is not enough space, it is stored for later
output via the @code{os} request.  The default argument is@w{ }1@dmn{v}
and the default unit is @code{v}.


@node Fonts, Sizes, Page Control, Programming Tutorial
@section Fonts
@cindex fonts

@findex ft
@findex \f
@code{gtroff} gives you the ability to switch fonts at any point in your
text.  There are two ways to do this, via the @code{ft} request and the
@code{\f} escape.

Fonts are generally specified as upper-case strings, which are usually
1@w{ }to 4 characters representing an abreviation or acronym of the font
name.

The basic set of fonts are @samp{R}, @samp{I}, @samp{B}, and @samp{BI}.
These are Times Roman, Italic, Bold, and Bold Italic.  There is also at
least one symbol font which contains various special symbols (greek,
mathematics).  Such symbols fonts cannot be used directly, but should be
used via an escape.

@menu
* Changing Fonts::              
* Font Families::               
* Font Positions::              
* Using Symbols::               
* Artificial Fonts::            
* Ligatures and Kerning::       
@end menu

@node Changing Fonts, Font Families, Fonts, Fonts
@subsection Changing Fonts
@cindex changing fonts
@cindex fonts, changing

@findex ft
@cindex previous font
@cindex font, previous
You can change fonts with both the @code{ft} request.  With no arguments
it will switch to the previous font (also known as @samp{P}).

@example
eggs, bacon,
.ft B
spam
.ft
and sausage.
@end example

@findex \f
The @code{\f} escape is useful for changing fonts in the middle of
words:

@example
eggs, bacon, \fBspam\fP and sausage.
@end example

@noindent
Both of the above examples will produce the same output.  Note the usage
of @samp{P} to indicate the previous font---using @code{\f} it is not
possible to omit this parameter.

Sometimes when putting letters of different fonts, you need more or less
space at such boundaries.  There are two escapes to help with this.

@findex \/
@cindex italic correction
@cindex correction, italic
The @code{\/} escape increases the width of the preceding character so
that the spacing between that character and the following character will
be correct if the following character is a roman character.  For
example, if an italic@w{ }f is immediately followed by a roman right
parenthesis, then in many fonts the top right portion of the f will
overlap the top left of the right parenthesis.  It is a good idea to use
this escape sequence whenever an italic character is immediately
followed by a roman character without any intervening space.  This small
amount of space is also called @dfn{italic correction}.

@c XXX example
@c producing @i{f}), which is ugly.  Inserting \/ produces f) and avoids
@c this problem.

@findex \,
@cindex left italic correction
@cindex correction, left italic
The @code{\,} escape modifies the spacing of the following character so
that the spacing between that character and the preceding character will
be correct if the preceding character is a roman character.  It is a
good idea to use this escape sequence whenever a roman character is
immediately followed by an italic character without any intervening
space.  In analogy to above, this space could be called @dfn{left italic
correction}, but this term isn't used widely.

@c XXX example
@c For example, inserting \, between the parenthesis and the f changes
@c (f to (f.

@findex ftr
@findex ft
@findex ul
@findex bd
@findex \f
@findex cs
@findex tkf
@findex special
@findex fspecial
@findex fp
@findex code
The @code{ftr} request will translate fonts; its syntax is

@example
.ftr @var{F} @var{G}
@end example

@noindent
which translates font@w{ }@var{F} to font@w{ }@var{G}.  Whenever a font
named @var{F} is referred to in a @code{\f} escape sequence, or in the
@code{ft}, @code{ul}, @code{bd}, @code{cs}, @code{tkf}, @code{special},
@code{fspecial}, @code{fp}, or @code{code} requests, font@w{ }@var{G} will
be used.  If @var{G} is missing, or equal to @var{F} then font@w{
}@var{F} will not be translated.

@node Font Families, Font Positions, Changing Fonts, Fonts
@subsection Font Families
@cindex font families
@cindex families, font

Due to the variety of fonts available, @code{gtroff} has added the
concept of font families.  Each of these families has four styles
(@samp{R}, @samp{I}, @samp{B} and @samp{BI}).

The fonts are specified as the concatenation of the font family and
style.  Specifying a font without the family part will cause
@code{gtroff} to use that style of the current family.  By default,
@code{gtroff} uses the Times family.

This way, you can just use the basic four fonts and select a different
font family on the command line.

@findex fam
@vindex .fam
You can also switch font families with the @code{fam} request.  The
current font family is available in the number register @code{.fam}.
This is a string-valued register.

@example
spam,
.fam H
spam,
.ft B
spam,
.fam T
spam,
.ft AR
baked beans,
.ft R
and spam.
@end example

@node Font Positions, Using Symbols, Font Families, Fonts
@subsection Font Positions
@cindex font positions
@cindex positions, font

For the sake of old phototypesetters and compatability with old versions
of @code{troff}, @code{gtroff} has the concept of font @dfn{positions},
on which various fonts are mounted.  The last one or two are reserved
for the symbol font(s).

@findex fp
New fonts can be mounted with the @code{fp} request.  These numeric
positions can then be referred to with font changing commands.  When
@code{gtroff} starts it is using font number one.

@example
.fp 1 H
.fp 2 HI
.fp 3 HB
wink, wink,
.ft 2
nudge, nudge,
.ft
.ft 3
say no more!
.ft
@end example

@noindent
Note that after these font changes have taken place the original font
is restored.

@vindex .f
The current font in use, as a font position, is available in number
register @code{.f}.  This can be useful to remember the current font,
for later recall.

@example
.nr save-font \n(.f
... lots 'o text ...
.ft \n[save-font]
@end example

@vindex .fp
The number of the next free font position is available in the number
register @code{.fp}.  This is useful when mounting a new font, like so:

@example
.fp \n[.fp] NEATOFONT
@end example

@pindex DESC
Fonts not listed in the @file{DESC} file are automatically mounted on
the next available font position when they are referenced.  If a font is
to be mounted explicitly with the @code{fp} request on an unused font
position, it should be mounted on the first unused font position, which
can be found in the @code{.fp} register.  Although @code{gtroff} does
not enforce this strictly, it will not allow a font to be mounted at a
position whose number is much greater than that of any currently used
position.

@findex fp
The @code{fp} request has an optional third argument.  This argument
gives the external name of the font, which is used for finding the font
description file.  The second argument gives the internal name of the
font which is used to refer to the font in @code{gtroff} after it has
been mounted.  If there is no third argument then the internal name will
be used as the external name.  This feature allows you to use fonts with
long names in compatibility mode.

@node Using Symbols, Artificial Fonts, Font Positions, Fonts
@subsection Using Symbols
@cindex using symbols
@cindex symbols, using

@findex \(
@findex \[
Symbols can be inserted by using a special escape sequence.  This escape
is simply the escape character (usually a backslash) followed by an
identifier.  The symbol identifiers have to be two or more characters,
since single characters conflict with all the other escapes.  The
identifier can be either preceded by a parenthesis if it is two
characters long, or surrounded by square brackets.  So, the symbol for
the mathematical Greek letter `pi' can be produced either by @code{\(*p}
or @code{\[*p]}.

@example
area = \(*p\fIr\fP\u2\d
@end example

@findex \C
The escape @code{\C'@var{xxx}'} will typeset the character named
@var{xxx}.  Normally it is more convenient to use @code{\[@var{xxx}]}.
But @code{\C} has the advantage that it is compatible with recent
versions of @code{ditroff} and is available in compatibility mode.

@findex \N
@findex char
The escape @code{\N'@var{n}'} will typeset the character with code@w{
}@var{n} in the current font.  @var{n} can be any integer.  Most devices
only have characters with codes between 0 and@w{ }255.  If the current
font does not contain a character with that code, special fonts will
@emph{not} be searched.  The @code{\N} escape sequence can be
conveniently used on conjunction with the @code{char} request:

@example
.char \[phone] \f(ZD\N'37'
@end example

@noindent
@pindex DESC
@cindex unnamed characters
@cindex characters, unnamed
The code of each character is given in the fourth column in the font
description file after the charset command.  It is possible to include
unnamed characters in the font description file by using a name of
@samp{---}; the @code{\N} escape sequence is the only way to use these.

@findex cflags
@cindex character properties
@cindex properties of characters
Each character has certain properties associated with it.  These
properties can be modified with the @code{cflags} request.  The first
argument is the the sum of the desired flags and the remaining arguments
are the characters to have those properties.

@table @code
@item 1
@cindex end of sentence characters
@cindex characters, end of sentence
the character ends sentences (initially characters @samp{.?!} have this
property)
@item 2
@cindex hyphenating characters
@cindex characters, hyphenation
lines can be broken before the character (initially no characters have
this property)
@item 4
lines can be broken after the character (initially the characters
@samp{-\(hy\(em} have this property)
@item 8
@cindex overlapping characters
@cindex characters, overlapping
the character overlaps horizontally (initially the characters
@samp{\(ul\(rn\(ru} have this property)
@item 16
the character overlaps vertically (initially character @samp{\(br} has
this property)
@item 32
@cindex transparent characters
@cindex characters, transparent
an end of sentence character followed by any number of characters with
this property will be treated as the end of a sentence if followed by a
newline or two spaces; in other words the character is @dfn{transparent}
for the purposes of end of sentence recognition---this is the same as
having a zero space factor in @TeX{} (initially characters
@samp{"')]*\(dg\(rq} have this property).
@end table

@findex char
@cindex defining characters
@cindex characters, defining
You can create new characters with the @code{char} request.  It is
called as

@example
.char @var{c} @var{string}
@end example

@findex tr
@findex lc
@findex \l
@findex \L
@findex hcode
@noindent
This defines character@w{ }@var{c} to be @var{string}.  Every time
character@w{ }@var{c} needs to be printed, @var{string} will be
processed in a temporary environment and the result will be wrapped up
into a single object.  Compatibility mode will be turned off and the
escape character will be set to @samp{\} while @var{string} is being
processed.  Any emboldening, constant spacing or track kerning will be
applied to this object rather than to individual characters in
@var{string}.  A character defined by this request can be used just like
a normal character provided by the output device.  In particular other
characters can be translated to it with the @code{tr} request; it can be
made the leader character by the @code{lc} request; repeated patterns
can be drawn with the character using the @code{\l} and @code{\L} escape
sequences; words containing the character can be hyphenated correctly,
if the @code{hcode} request is used to give the character a hyphenation
code.  There is a special anti-recursion feature: use of character
within the character's definition will be handled like normal characters
not defined with @code{char}.

@findex rchar
@cindex removing character definition
@cindex character, removing definition
A character definition can be removed with the @code{rchar} request.
Its arguments are the characters to be removed.  This undoes the effect
of a @code{char} request.

@xref{Special Characters}.

@node Artificial Fonts, Ligatures and Kerning, Using Symbols, Fonts
@subsection Artificial Fonts
@cindex artificial fonts
@cindex fonts, artificial

There are a number of requests for artificially creating fonts.  These
are largely vestigal remains from the days when output devices did not
have a wide variety of fonts, and when @code{nroff} and @code{troff}
were separate programs.  These are no longer necessary in GNU
@code{troff}.

@findex ul
@cindex underlining
The @code{ul} request will print subsequent lines in italics on a device
capable of it, or underline the text on an character output device.  The
single argument is the number of lines to be ``underlined,'' with no
argument, the next line will be underlined.

@findex cu
@cindex continuous underlining
@cindex underlining, continuous
The @code{cu} request is similar to @code{ul} ...

@c XXX more info

@findex uf
@cindex underline font
@cindex font for underlining
The @code{uf} request will set the underline font used by @code{ul} and
@code{cu}.

@findex bd
@cindex imitating bold face
@cindex bold face, imitating
The @code{bd} request artificially creates a bold font by printing each
character twice, slightly offset.  The first argument specifies the font
to embolden, and the second is the number of basic units, minus one, by
which the two characters will be offset.  If the second argument is
missing, emboldening will be turned off.

@node Ligatures and Kerning,  , Artificial Fonts, Fonts
@subsection Ligatures and Kerning
@cindex ligatures and kerning
@cindex kerning and ligatures

What are ligatures?

@c XXX more info

@findex lg
@vindex .lg
You can switch the ligature mechanism on or off with the @code{lg}
request; if the parameter is non-zero or missing, ligatures are enabled,
otherwise disabled.  Default is on.  The current ligature mode can be
found in the number register @code{.lg} (set to@w{ }1 if ligatures are
enabled, 0@w{ }otherwise).

What is kerning?

@c XXX more info

If the font description file contains pairwise kerning information,
characters from that font will be kerned.  Kerning between two
characters can be inhibited by placing @code{\&} between them.

@findex kern
@vindex .kern
You can activate kerning with the @code{kern} request.  If the parameter
is non-zero or missing, enable pairwise kerning, otherwise disable it.
The number register @code{.kern} is set to@w{ }1 if pairwise kerning is
enabled, 0@w{ }otherwise.

@findex tkf
@cindex track kerning
@cindex kerning, track
What is track kerning?

@c XXX more info

Track kerning must be used with great care since it is usually
considered bad typography if the reader notices the effect.  The syntax
of the @code{tkf} request is

@example
.tkf @var{f} @var{s1} @var{n1} @var{s2} @var{n2}
@end example

@noindent
Enable track kerning for font@w{ }@var{f}.  If the current font is@w{
}@var{f} the width of every character will be increased by an amount
between @var{n1} and @var{n2}; if the current point size is less than or
equal to @var{s1} the width will be increased by @var{n1}; if it is
greater than or equal to @var{s2} the width will be increased by
@var{n2}; if the point size is greater than or equal to @var{s1} and
less than or equal to @var{s2} the increase in width is a linear
function of the point size.


@node Sizes, Strings, Fonts, Programming Tutorial
@section Sizes
@cindex sizes

@cindex baseline
@cindex type size
@cindex size of type
@cindex vertical spacing
@cindex spacing, vertical
@code{gtroff} uses two dimensions with each line of text, type size and
vertical spacing.  The @dfn{type size} is the height from the text
@dfn{baseline} to the top of the tallest character (decenders may drop
below this baseline).  @dfn{Vertical spacing} is the amount of space
@code{gtroff} allows for a line of text; normally, this is about 20%@w{
}larger than the current type size.  Ratios smaller than this can result
in hard-to-read text; larger that this, it will spread your text out
more vertically (useful for term papers).  By default, @code{gtroff}
uses 10@w{ }point type on 12@w{ }point spacing.

@cindex leading
The difference between type size and vertical spacing is known, by
typesetters, as @dfn{leading}.

@menu
* Changing Type Sizes::         
* Fractional Type Sizes::       
@end menu

@node Changing Type Sizes, Fractional Type Sizes, Sizes, Sizes
@subsection Changing Type Sizes
@cindex changing type sizes
@cindex type sizes, changing

@findex ps
@findex vs
@findex \s
@vindex .s
@vindex .v
Using the @code{ps} request and the @code{\s} escape you can change the
type size.  The @code{vs} request will change the vertical spacing.  The
default unit for the @code{ps} and @code{vs} requests are points.  The
number registers @code{.s} and @code{.v} contain the current type size
and vertical spacing.

These requests take parameters in units of points.  You can specify
sizes as an absolute size, or as a relative change from the current
size.  The size@w{ }0 means go back to the previous size.  With no
argument it will also revert to the previous size.

@example
snap, snap,
.ps +2
grin, grin,
.ps +2
wink, wink, \s+2nudge, nudge,\s+8 say no more!
.ps 10
@end example

The @code{\s} escape may be called in a variety of ways.  Much like
other escapes there must be a way to determine where the argument ends
and the text begins.  Any of the following forms are valid:

@table @code
@item \s@var{n}
Set the point size to @var{n}@w{ }points.  @var{n}@w{ }must be either 0
or in the range 4 to@w{ }39.
@itemx \s+@var{n}
@itemx \s-@var{n}
Increase resp.@: decrease the point size by @var{n}@w{ }points.
@var{n}@w{ }must be exactly one digit.
@item \s(@var{nn}
Set the point size to @var{nn}@w{ }points.  @var{nn} must be exactly two
digits.
@item \s+(@var{nn}
@itemx \s-(@var{nn}
@itemx \s(+@var{nn}
@itemx \s(-@var{nn}
Increase resp.@: decrease the point size by @var{nn}@w{ }points.
@var{nn} must be exactly two digits.
@end table

@xref{Fractional Type Sizes}, for yet another syntactical form of using
the @code{\s} escape.

Some devices may only have certain permissible sizes, in which case
@code{gtroff} will round to the nearest permissible size.

@c XXX example

@example
... .sz macro example?? ...
@end example

@node Fractional Type Sizes,  , Changing Type Sizes, Sizes
@subsection Fractional Type Sizes
@cindex fractional type sizes
@cindex type sizes, fractional

@cindex @code{s} unit
@cindex unit, @code{s}
@cindex @code{z} unit
@cindex unit, @code{z}
@findex ps
@findex cs
@findex tkf
@findex \H
@findex \s
A @dfn{scaled point} is equal to 1/@var{sizescale} points, where
@var{sizescale} is specified in the @file{DESC} file (1@w{ }by default.)
There is a new scale indicator @samp{z} which has the effect of
multiplying by @var{sizescale}.  Requests and escape sequences in
@code{gtroff} interpret arguments that represent a pointsize as being in
units of scaled points, but they evaluate each such argument using a
default scale indicator of @samp{z}.  Arguments treated in this way are
the argument to the @code{ps} request, the third argument to the
@code{cs} request, the second and fourth arguments to the @code{tkf}
request, the argument to the @code{\H} escape sequence, and those
variants of the @code{\s} escape sequence that take a numeric expression
as their argument (see below).

For example, suppose @var{sizescale} is@w{ }1000; then a scaled point
will be equivalent to a millipoint; the request @w{@samp{.ps 10.25}} is
equivalent to @w{@samp{.ps 10.25z}} and thus sets the pointsize to 10250
scaled points, which is equal to 10.25@w{ }points.

It would make no sense to use the @samp{z} scale indicator in a numeric
expression whose default scale indicator was neither @samp{u} nor
@samp{z}, and so @code{gtroff} disallows this.  Similarily it would make
no sense to use a scaling indicator other than @samp{z} or @samp{u} in a
numeric expression whose default scale indicator was @samp{z}, and so
@code{gtroff} disallows this as well.

There is also new scale indicator @samp{s} which multiplies by the
number of units in a scaled point.  So, for example, @samp{\n[.ps]s} is
equal to @samp{1m}.  Be sure not to confuse the @samp{s} and @samp{z}
scale indicators.

@vindex .s
@vindex .ps
The number register @code{.s} returns the pointsize in points as decimal
fraction.  There is also a new number register @code{.ps} that returns
the pointsize in scaled points.

@vindex .psr
@vindex .sr
The last-requested pointsize in scaled points is contained in the
@code{.psr} number register.  The last requested pointsize in points as
a decimal fraction can be found in @code{.psr}.  This is a string-valued
register.

@table @code
@item \s[@var{n}]
@itemx \s'@var{n}'
Set the point size to @var{n} scaled points; @var{n}@w{ }is a numeric
expression with a default scale indicator of @samp{z}.
@item \s[+@var{n}]
@itemx \s[-@var{n}]
@itemx \s+[@var{n}]
@itemx \s-[@var{n}]
@itemx \s'+@var{n}'
@itemx \s'-@var{n}'
@itemx \s+'@var{n}'
@itemx \s-'@var{n}'
Increases resp.@: decreases the point size by @var{n} scaled points;
@var{n} is a numeric expression with a default scale indicator of
@samp{z}.
@end table

@xref{Font Files}.


@node Strings, Conditionals and Loops, Sizes, Programming Tutorial
@section Strings
@cindex strings

@findex ds
@code{gtroff} has string variables, which are entirely for user
convenience (i.e.@: there are no built-in strings).  They are defined
via the @code{ds} request.

@example
.ds UX \s-1UNIX\s0\u\s-3tm\s0\d
@end example

@findex \*
@cindex string interpolation
@cindex string expansion
@cindex interpolation of strings
@cindex expansion of strings
They are interpolated, or expanded in-place, via the @code{\*} escape:

@example
The \*(UX Operating System
@end example

If the string named by the @code{\*} does not exist, the escape will be
replaced by nothing.

@cindex comments, with @code{ds}
@strong{Caution:} Unlike other requests, the second argument to the
@code{ds} request takes up the entire line including trailing spaces.
This means that comments on a line with such a request can introduce
unwanted space into a string.

@example
.ds UX \s-1UNIX\s0\u\s-3tm\s0\d \" UNIX trademark
@end example

@noindent
Instead you should either put the comment on another line or have the
comment escape adjacent with the end of the string.

@example
.ds UX \s-1UNIX\s0\u\s-3tm\s0\d\"  UNIX trademark
@end example

@cindex trailing quotes
@cindex quotes, trailing
@cindex leading spaces with @code{ds}
@cindex spaces with @code{ds}
If you need leading space you can start the string with a double quote.
No trailing quote is needed; in fact, any trailing quote is included in
your string.

@example
.ds sign "           Yours in a white wine sauce,
@end example

@findex as
@cindex appending to strings
@cindex strings, appending
You can also append onto a string with the @code{as} request.  It works
similar to the @code{ds} request except that it appends the second
argument onto the string named by the first argument.

@example
.as sign " with shallots, onions and garlic,
@end example

@findex \@key{RET}
@cindex multiline strings
@cindex strings, multiline
@cindex newline character, escaping
@cindex escaping newline characters
Strings are not limited to a sigle line of text.  A string can span
several lines by escaping the newlines with a backslash.  The resulting
string will be stored @emph{without} the newlines.

@example
.ds foo lots and lots \
of text are on these \
next several lines
@end example

@findex substring
@cindex substrings
Rudimentary string maipulation routines are given with the
@code{substring} and @code{length} requests.  The former has the
following syntax:

@example
.substring @var{xx} @var{n1} [@var{n2}]
@end example

@noindent
It replaces the string in register@w{ }@var{xx} with the substring
defined by the indices @var{n1} and@w{ }@var{n2}.  The first character
in the string has index one.  If @var{n2} is omitted, it is taken to be
equal to the string's length.  If the index value @var{n1} or @var{n2}
is negative or zero, it will be counted from the end of the string,
going backwards: The last character has index@w{ }0, the character
before the last character has index@w{ }-1, etc.

@findex length
@cindex length of a string
@cindex string, length of
Here the syntax of the @code{length} request:

@example
.length @var{xx} @var{string}
@end example

@noindent
It computes the length of @var{string} and returns it in the number
register@w{ }@var{xx} (which is not necessarily defined before).

@findex rn
@code{rn}

@c XXX

@findex rm
@code{rm}

@c XXX

@findex als
@code{als}

@c XXX

@findex chop
@code{chop}

@c XXX

@xref{Identifiers}, and @ref{Comments}.


@node Conditionals and Loops, Writing Macros, Strings, Programming Tutorial
@section Conditionals and Loops
@cindex conditionals and loops
@cindex loops and conditionals

@findex if
@findex while
In @code{if} and @code{while} requests, there are several more operators
available:

@table @code
@item e
@itemx o
True if the current page is even or odd numbered (respectively).
@item n
@itemx t
True if the document is being processed by @code{nroff} (or a character
device) resp.@: @code{troff}.
@item '@var{xxx}'@var{yyy}'
True if the string @var{xxx} is equal to the string @var{yyy}.  Other
characters can be used in place of the single quotes.
@c XXX (Which?)
The strings are `formatted' before being compared.
@c XXX (?)
@item r@var{xxx}
True if there is a number register named @var{xxx}.
@item d@var{xxx}
True if there is a string, macro, diversion, or request named @var{xxx}.
@item c@var{ch}
@findex char
True if there is a character @var{ch} available; @var{ch} is either an
@sc{ascii} character or a special character (@code{\(@var{ch}} or
@code{\[@var{ch}]}); the condition will also be true if @var{ch} has
been defined by the @code{char} request.
@end table

@menu
* if-else::                     
* while::                       
@end menu

@node if-else, while, Conditionals and Loops, Conditionals and Loops
@subsection if-else
@cindex if-else

Troff has if-then-else constructs like other languages, although the
formatting can be painful.

@findex if
The @code{if} request has the following syntax:

@example
.if @var{expr} @var{anything}
@end example

@noindent
where @var{expr} is the expression to be evaluated; @var{anything} (the
remainder of the line) will be executed if @var{expr} evaluates to
non-zero (true).  @var{anything} will be interpreted as though it was on
a line by itself.  @xref{Expressions}, for more info.

Here are some examples:

@example
.if t .ls 2                             \" double spacing in troff
.if 0 .ab how'd this happen?
@end example

@findex ie
@findex el
An if-then-else is written using two requests @code{ie} and @code{el}.
The first request is the `if' part and the latter is the `else' part.

@c XXX example

@example
.ie
.el
@end example

@findex \@{
@findex \@}
In many cases you want more than one request to be executed as a result
of any of these requests.  This can be done using the @code{\@{} and
@code{\@}} escapes.  The following example shows the possible ways to
use these escapes (note the position of the opening and closing braces).

@example
.ie t \@{\
.    ds lq ``
.    ds rq ''
.\@}
.el \
.\@{\
.    ds lq "
.    ds rq "\@}
.ds qq "
@end example

@xref{Expressions}.

@node while,  , if-else, Conditionals and Loops
@subsection while
@cindex while

@findex while
@code{gtroff} provides a looping construct using the @code{while}
request, which is used much like the @code{if} (and related) requests.
The first argument is an expression which will be evaluated.  The
@code{while} request will interpret the remainder of the line until the
expression evaluates to 0 or false.

@example
.nr a 0 1
.while (\na<9) \&\n+a,
\&\n+a
@end example

@noindent
The preceding example produces:

@example
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
@end example

@findex \&
@noindent
Note the usage of the @code{\&} escape to avoid a control character at
the beginning of a line.

@findex break
@findex continue
The @code{break} request will @dfn{break} out of a while loop.  Be sure
not to confuse this with the @code{br} request (causing a line break).
The @code{continue} request will finish the current iteration of a while
loop, immediately restarting the next iteration.

@xref{Expressions}.


@node Writing Macros, Page Motions, Conditionals and Loops, Programming Tutorial
@section Writing Macros
@cindex writing macros
@cindex macros, writing

@findex de
A @dfn{macro} is a collection of text and embedded commands which can be
invoked multiple times.  Macros are used for defining common operations.
Macros are defined using the @code{de} request.  This request takes a
name for the macro as the first argument.  Subsequent lines are copied
into an internal buffer until the line @code{..} is encountered.  The
optional second argument to @code{de} can change this ending token.

For example, suppose at the beginning of each paragraph, you want cause
a break, move down a partial line and indent the first line.  Such a
macro (it is called @code{P}) could be defined as follows:

@example
.de P
.br
.sp .8v
..
@end example

@findex am
The @code{am} request works similarly to @code{de} except it appends
onto the macro named by the first argument.  So, if we decide we want
our previously defined @code{P} macro to actually do indented instead of
block paragraphs we can add the necessary code to our existing macro:

@example
.am P
.ti +5n
..
@end example

@findex als
@cindex aliases, macro
@cindex macro aliases
Macros can be aliased with the @code{als} request.

@c XXX example

@menu
* Copy-in Mode::                
* Parameters::                  
@end menu

@node Copy-in Mode, Parameters, Writing Macros, Writing Macros
@subsection Copy-in Mode
@cindex copy-in mode
@cindex mode, copy-in

@findex \n
@findex \$
@findex \*
@findex \\
@findex \@key{RET}
When troff reads in the text for a macro or diversion it copies the text
(including request lines, but excluding escapes) into an internal
buffer.  Escapes will be converted into an internal form, except for
@code{\n}, @code{\$}, @code{\*}, @code{\\} and @code{\@key{RET}} which
are evaluated and inserted into the text where the escape was located.
This is known as @dfn{copy-in} mode.

What this means is that you can specify when these escapes are to be
evaluated (either at copy-in time or at the time of use) by insulating
the escapes with an extra backslash.  Compare this to the @code{\def}
and @code{\edef} commands in @TeX{}.

For example, the following will result in the numbers 20 and@c{ }10
being printed:

@example
.nr x 20
.de y
.nr x 10
\&\nx
\&\\nx
..
.y
@end example

@node Parameters,  , Copy-in Mode, Writing Macros
@subsection Parameters
@cindex parameters

@findex \$
@vindex .$
The arguments to a macro can be examined using a variety of escapes.
The number of arguments is available in the @code{.$} number register.
Any individual argument can be retrieved with one of the following
escapes:

@cindex copy-in mode
The escapes @code{\$@var{n}}, @code{\$(@var{nn}} and
@code{\$[@var{nnn}]} will result in the @var{n}th, @var{nn}th or
@var{nnn}th argument.  As usual, the first form only accepts a single
number (larger than zero), the second only a two-digit number (larger or
equal to@w{ }10), and the third any positive integer value (larger than
zero).  Macros can have an unlimited number of arguments.  Note that due
to copy-in mode, you will want to have two backslashes on these in
actual use, since you do not want them interpolated until the macro is
actually invoked.

@findex shift
The request @code{shift} will shift the arguments 1@w{ }position, or as
many positions as specified by its argument.  After executing this
request, argument@w{ }@var{i} will become argument @var{i}-@var{n};
arguments 1 to@w{ }@var{n} will no longer be available.  Shifting by
negative amounts is currently undefined.

@findex \$*
@findex \$@@
In some cases you will want to just use all of the arguments at once.
For example if you pass the arguments along to another macro.  The
@code{\$*} escape is the concatenation of all the arguments separated by
spaces.  A similar escape is @code{\$@@}, which is the concatenation of
all the arguments with each surrounded by double quotes, and separated
by spaces.

@findex \$0
@findex als
The @code{\$0} escape is the name by which the current macro was
invoked.  The @code{als} request can make a macro have more than one
name.

@example
.de vl
.ie \\n(.$=1 .ds Vl Pre-Release Version
.el          .ds Vl Version \\$3, \\$4.
..
@end example

This would be called as

@example
.vl $Id$
@end example

@xref{Request Arguments}.


@node Page Motions, Drawing Requests, Writing Macros, Programming Tutorial
@section Page Motions
@cindex page motions
@cindex motions, page

@findex sp
Motions up and down the page can be done with the @code{sp} request.
However, this causes a break so that the actual effect is to move to the
left margin and then to the specified location.

@findex mk
@findex rt
The request @code{mk} can be used to mark a location on a page, for
movement to later.  This request takes a register name as an argument in
which to store the current page location.  With no argument it will
store the location in an internal register.  The results of this can be
used later by the @code{rt} or the @code{sp} request.  The @code{rt}
request will return @emph{upwards} to the location given in the register
name given as an argument, with no argument it will return to the
location marked with the @code{mk} request

@c XXX example

@example
... dual column example ...
@end example

The following escapes will give you much finer control of movements
about the page.

@findex \v
@cindex vertical motion
@cindex motion, vertical
The @code{\v'@var{e}'} will let you do arbitrary vertical motion from
the current location on the page.  The argument@w{ }@var{e} specifies
the distance to move; positive is downwards and negative upwards.  The
default unit for this escape is vertical spaces, @code{v}'s.  Beware,
however, that @code{gtroff} will leave text processing to continue
wherever the motion ends, so if you don't want to interfere with text
processing, make sure your motions are balanced.

There are some special case escapes for vertical motion.

@ftable @code
@item \r
move upwards@w{ }1@dmn{v}.
@item \u
move upwards@w{ }.5@dmn{v}.
@item \d
move down@w{ }.5@dmn{v}.
@end ftable

@findex \h
Horizontal motions can be done via the @code{\h'@var{e}'} escape.  The
expression@w{ }@var{e} indicates how far to move: positive is rightwards
and negative leftwards.

There are a number of special case escapes for horizontal motion:

@ftable @code
@item \@key{SP}
an unbreakable and unpaddable (i.e.@: not expanded during filling)
space.  (Note: It is a backslash followed by a space.)
@item \~
an unbreakable space that stretches like a normal interword space when a
line is adjusted.
@item \|
a 1/6th em space.
@item \^
a 1/12th em space.
@item \0
a space the size of a digit.
@item \&
A zero width space.
@item \)
Like @code{\&} except that it behaves like a character declared with the
@code{cflags} request to be transparent for the purposes of end of
sentence recognition.
@end ftable

@c XXX example

@example
... tex logo example ...
@end example

@findex \w
@cindex width escape
@cindex escape, width
Often you will want to do horizontal movement based on the width of some
arbitrary text (e.g.@: given as an argument to a macro).  For that,
there is the escape @code{\w'@var{text}'} which will interpolate to the
width of the given @var{text} in basic units.

@c XXX example

@example
... strlen example ...
@end example

Font changes may occur in @var{text} which don't affect current
settings.

After use, @code{\w} sets several registers:

@table @code
@vindex st
@vindex sb
@item st
@itemx sb
The highest and lowest point, respectively, in @var{text}.
@vindex rst
@vindex rsb
@item rst
@itemx rsb
Like the @code{st} and @code{sb} registers, but takes account of the
heights and depths of characters.
@vindex ct
@item ct
is set according to what kinds of characters occur in @var{text}:
@table @asis
@item 0
only short characters, no decenders or tall characters.
@item 1
decender
@item 2
tall character
@item 3
both a decender and a tall character
@end table
@vindex ssc
@item ssc
The amount of horizontal space (possibly negative) that should be added
to the last character before a subscript.
@vindex skw
@item skw
How far to right of the center of the last character in the @code{\w}
argument, the center of an accent from a roman font should be placed
over that character.
@end table

@findex \k
@vindex .k
@code{\k}

@code{.k}

@c XXX documentation


@node Drawing Requests, Traps, Page Motions, Programming Tutorial
@section Drawing Requests
@cindex drawing requests
@cindex requests for drawing

@code{gtroff} provides a number of ways to draw lines and other figures
on the page.  Used in combination with the page motion commands
(@pxref{Page Motions}, for more info) you can draw a wide variety of
figures.  However, for complex drawings these operations can be quite
cumbersome, and it may be wise to use graphic preprocessors like
@code{gpic} or @code{ggrn}.  @xref{gpic}, and @ref{ggrn}, for more
information.

All drawing is done via escapes.

@findex \l
@cindex horizontal line
@cindex line, horizontal
The @code{\l} escape will draw a line rightwards from the current
location.  The full syntax for this escape is

@example
\l'@var{l}@var{c}'
@end example

@noindent
where @var{l} is the length of the line to be drawn, starting at the
current location; positive numbers will draw to the right, and negative
will draw towards the left.  This can also be specified absolutely
(i.e.@: with a leading @samp{|}) which will draw back to the beginning
of the line.

@cindex underscore character
@cindex character, underscore
@cindex line drawing character
@cindex character for line drawing
The optional second parameter @var{c} is a character to draw the line
with.  If this second argument is not specified, troff will use the
underscore character.

@findex \&
If you need to separate the two arguments (to prevent troff from
interpreting a drawing character as a scaling indicator), you can
separate them with @code{\&}.

Here a small useful example:

@example
.de box
\(br\\$*\(br\l'|0\(rn'\l'|0\(ul'
..
@end example

@noindent
@findex |
Note that this works by outputting a box rule (a vertical line), then
the text given as an argument and then another box rule.  Then the line
drawing escapes both draw from the current location to the beginning of
the @emph{input} line.

@findex \L
@cindex vertical line
@cindex line, vertical
@cindex line drawing character
@cindex character for line drawing
@cindex box rule character
@cindex character, box rule
Vertical lines are drawn using the @code{\L} escape.  Its parameters are
specified similar to the @code{\l} escape.  If the length is positive,
the movement will be downwards, and upwards for negative values.  The
default character is the box rule character.  As with the vertical
motion escapes, text processing will blindly continue where the line
ends.

@c XXX example

@example
...box macro...
@end example

@findex \D
More flexible drawing functions are available via the @code{\D} escape.
While the previous escapes will work on a character device, these
escapes will not.

@table @code
@item \D'l @var{dx} @var{dy}'
Draw a line from the current location to the relative point specified by
(@var{dx},@var{dy}).

@c XXX example

@example
...revised box macro...
@end example

@item \D'c @var{d}'
@cindex circles
Draw a circle with a diameter of @var{d} with the leftmost point at the
current position.
@item \D'C @var{d}'
Draw a solid circle with the same parameters as an outlined circle.
@item \D'e @var{dx} @var{dy}'
@cindex ellipses
Draw an ellipse with a horizontal diameter of @var{dx} and a vertical
diameter of @var{dy} with the leftmost point at the current position.
@item \D'E @var{dx} @var{dy}'
Draw a solid ellipse with the same parameters as an outlined ellipse.
@item \D'a @var{dx1} @var{dy1} @var{dx2} @var{dy2}'
@cindex arcs
Draw an arc clockwise from the current location through the two
specified locations (@var{dx1},@var{dy1}) and (@var{dx2},@var{dy2}).
@item \D'~ @var{dx1} @var{dy1} @var{dx2} @var{dy2} ...'
@cindex splines
Draw a spline from the current location to (@var{dx1},@var{dy1}) and
then to (@var{dx2},@var{dy2}), and so on.
@item \D'f @var{n}'
@cindex gray shading
@cindex shading
Set the shade of gray to be used for filling solid objects to@w{
}@var{n}; @var{n}@w{ }must be an integer between 0 and@w{ }1000, where 0
corresponds solid white and 1000 to solid black, and values in between
correspond to intermediate shades of gray.  This applies only to solid
circles, solid ellipses and solid polygons.  By default, a level of@w{
}1000 will be used.
@item \D'p @var{dx1} @var{dy1} @var{dx2} @var{dy2} ...'
@cindex polygons
Draw a polygon from the current location to (@var{dx1},@var{dy1}) and
then to (@var{dx2},@var{dy2}) and so on.  When the specified data points
are exhausted, a line is drawn back to the starting point.

@c XXX example

@example
... box example (yes, again)...
@end example

@itemx \D'P @var{dx1} @var{dy1} @var{dx2} @var{dy2} ...'
Draw a solid polygon with the same parameters as an outlined polygon.

@c XXX example

@example
... shaded box example ...
@end example

@item \D't @var{n}'
@cindex line thickness
@cindex thickness of lines
Set the current line thickness to @var{n} machine units.  A value of
zero selects the smallest available line thickness.  A negative value
makes the line thickness proportional to the current point size (this is
the default behaviour of @code{ditroff}).
@end table

@findex \b
@cindex pile, character
@cindex character pile
The @code{\b} escape will @dfn{pile} a sequence of characters
vertically, and center it vertically on the current line.  This can be
used to build large brackets and braces.

@example
\b'\(lt\(bv\(lk\(bv\(lb'
@end example

@xref{Drawing Functions}.

@node Traps, Diversions, Drawing Requests, Programming Tutorial
@section Traps
@cindex traps

@dfn{Traps} are locations, which, when reached, will call a specified
macro.  These traps can occur at a given location on the page, at a
given location in the current diversion, after a certain number of input
lines or at the end of input.

@menu
* Page Location Traps::         
* Diversion Traps::             
* Input Line Traps::            
* End-of-input Traps::          
@end menu

@node Page Location Traps, Diversion Traps, Traps, Traps
@subsection Page Location Traps
@cindex page location traps
@cindex traps, page location

@c XXX definition of wh request

@cindex page headers
@cindex page footers
@cindex headers
@cindex footers
Page location traps are frequently used for page headers and footers.
The following is a simple example of this.

@example
.de hd                \" Page header
'sp .5i
.tl 'Title''date'
'sp .3i
..
.de fo                \" Page footer
'sp 1v
.tl ''%''
'bp
..
.wh 0   hd            \" trap at top of the page
.wh -1i fo            \" trap one inch from bottom
@end example

@vindex .t
@cindex distance to next trap
@cindex trap, distance
The number register @code{.t} is the distance to the next trap.

@findex ch
@cindex changing trap location
@cindex trap, changing location
The location of a trap can be changed later on with the @code{ch}
request.  The first argument is the name of the macro to be invoked at
the trap and the second argument is the new location for the trap.  This
is useful when you are building up footnotes in a diversion, and you
need to allow more space at the bottom of the page for them.

@c XXX

@example
... (simplified) footnote example ...
@end example

@findex vpt
@findex wh
@findex dt
@vindex .vpt
The @code{vpt} request will enable vertical position traps if the
argument is non-zero, disable them otherwise.  Vertical position traps
are traps set by the @code{wh} or @code{dt} requests.  Traps set by the
@code{it} request are not vertical position traps.  The parameter that
controls whether vertical position traps are enabled is global.
Initially vertical position traps are enabled.  The current setting of
this is available in the number register @code{.vpt}.

@vindex .trunc
@findex ne
The number register @code{.trunc} contains the amount of vertical space
truncated by the most recently sprung vertical position trap, or, if the
trap was sprung by a @code{ne} request, minus the amount of vertical
motion produced by the @code{ne} request.  In other words, at the point
a trap is sprung, it represents the difference of what the vertical
position would have been but for the trap, and what the vertical
position actually is.

@vindex .ne
The number register @code{.ne} contains the amount of space that was
needed in the last @code{ne} request that caused a trap to be sprung.
Useful in conjunction with the @code{.trunc} register.  @xref{Page
Control}, for more information.

@node Diversion Traps, Input Line Traps, Page Location Traps, Traps
@subsection Diversion Traps
@cindex diversion traps
@cindex traps, diversion

@findex dt
@vindex .t
Traps can also be set @emph{within} a diversion using the @code{dt}
request.  Like @code{wh} the first argument is the location of the trap
and the second argument is the name of the macro to be invoked.  The
number register @code{.t} will still work within diversions.
@xref{Diversions}, for more information.

@node Input Line Traps, End-of-input Traps, Diversion Traps, Traps
@subsection Input Line Traps
@cindex input line traps
@cindex traps, input line

@findex it
The @code{it} request will set an input line trap.  The format for
calling this is

@example
.it @var{n} @var{name}
@end example

@noindent
where @var{n} is the number of lines of input which may be read before
@dfn{springing} the trap, @var{name} is the macro to be invoked.
Request lines are not counted as input lines.

For example, one possible use is to have a macro which will print the
next @var{n}@w{ }lines in a bold font.

@example
.de B
.it B-end \\$1
.ft B
..
.de B-end
.ft R
..
@end example

@node End-of-input Traps,  , Input Line Traps, Traps
@subsection End-of-input Traps
@cindex end-of-input traps
@cindex traps, end-of-input

@findex em
The @code{em} request will set a trap at the end of input.  The macro
specified as an arguement will be executed after the last line of the
input file has been processed.

For example, if your document had to have a section at the bottom of the
last page for someone to approve your document, you could set it up with
@code{em}.

@example
.de approval
.ne 5v
.sp |(\\n(.t-6v)
.in +4i
.lc _
.br
Approved:\t\a
.sp
Date:\t\t\a
..
.em approval
@end example


@node Diversions, Environments, Traps, Programming Tutorial
@section Diversions
@cindex diversions

In @code{gtroff} you can @dfn{divert} text into a named storage area.
Due to the similarity to defining macros it is sometimes said to be
stored in a macro.  This is used for saving text for output at a later
time, which is useful for keeping blocks of text on the same page,
footnotes, tables of contents and indices.

@findex di
@findex da
A diversion is initiated by the @code{di} request.  Like the @code{de}
request, it takes an argument of a macro name to divert subsequent text
into.  The @code{da} macro will append to an existing diversion.

@code{di} (resp.@: @code{da}) without an argument ends the diversion.

@c XXX example

@example
... end-note example ...
@end example

@vindex .z
@vindex .d
@vindex nl
@vindex .h
@cindex nested diversions
@cindex diversion, nested
Diversions may be nested.  The number register @code{.z} contains the
name of the current diversion.  The number register @code{.d} contains
the current vertical place in the diversion.  If not in a diversion it
is the same as the register @code{nl}.

@c XXX more info

@code{.h}

@vindex dn
@vindex dl
After completing a diversion, the built-in number registers @code{dn}
and @code{dl} contain the vertical and horizontal size of the diversion.

@example
.\" Center text both horizontally & vertically
.de (c
.br
.nf
.di @@c
..
.de )c
.br
.di
.nr @@s (((\\n(.tu-\\n(dnu)/2u)-1v)
.sp \\n(@@su
.ce 1000
.nf
.@c
.br
.ce 0
.sp \\n(@@su
.br
.fi
.rr @@s
..
@end example

@findex \!
@cindex transparent output
@cindex output, transparent
Requests, macros and escapes are interpreted when read into a diversion.
There are two ways to prevent this; either way will take the given text
and @dfn{transparently} embed it into the diversion.  The first method
is to prefix the line with @code{\!}.  This will cause the entire line
to be transparently inserted into the diversion.  This is useful for
macros you do not want invoked until the diverted text is actually
output.

@c XXX anything is read in copy mode. (what about \! ??)

@findex \?
The other way is to surround the text by the @code{\?} escape, i.e.

@example
\?@var{anything}\?
@end example

@noindent
@var{anything} may not contain newlines; use @code{\!} if you want to
embed newlines in a diversion.  The escape sequence @code{\?} is also
recognized in copy mode and turned into a single internal code; it is
this code that terminates anything.  Thus the following example will
print@w{ }4.

@example
.nr x 1
.nf
.di d
\?\\?\\\\?\\\\\\\\nx\\\\?\\?\?
.di
.nr x 2
.di e
.d
.di
.nr x 3
.di f
.e
.di
.nr x 4
.f
@end example

@findex asciify
@cindex unformatting diversions
@cindex diversion, unformatting
The @code{asciify} request only exists in order to make certain gross
hacks work with GNU @code{troff}.  It @dfn{unformats} the diversion
specified as an argument in such a way that @sc{ascii} characters that
were formatted and diverted will be treated like ordinary input
characters when the diversion is reread.  For example, the following
will set register @code{n} to@w{ }1.

@example
.tr @@.
.di x
@@nr\ n\ 1
.br
.di
.tr @@@@
.asciify x
.x
@end example

@xref{Copy-in Mode}.


@node Environments, I/O, Diversions, Programming Tutorial
@section Environments
@cindex environments

Often you will need to print some text in a certain format regardless of
what may be in effect at the time, for example, in a trap invoked macro
to print headers and footers.  To solve this @code{gtroff} has
@dfn{environments} in which text is processed.  An environment contains
most of the parameters that control text processing.  You can switch
amongst these environments; by default @code{gtroff} processes text in
environment@w{ }0.  The following is the information kept in an
environment.

@itemize @bullet{}
@item
type size
@item
font (family and style)
@item
page parameters
@item
fill/adjust mode
@item
tab stops
@item
partially collected lines
@end itemize

These environments may be given arbitrary names (@pxref{Identifiers},
for more info).  Old versions of troff only had environments named
@samp{0}, @samp{1} and@w{ }@samp{2}.

@findex ev
@vindex .ev
The @code{ev} request will switch among environments.  The single
argument is the name of the environment to switch to.  With no argument
@code{gtroff} will switch back to the previous environment.  There is no
limit on the number of named environments; they will be created the
first time that they are referenced.  The @code{.ev} register contains
the name or number of the current environment.  This is a string-valued
register.

@c XXX example

@example
... page break macro, revised ...
@end example

Here another example:

@example
.ev footnote-env
.fam N
.ps 6
.vs 8
.ll -.5i
.ev
...
.ev footnote-env
\(dg Note the large, friendly letters.
.ev
@end example


@node I/O, Postprocessor Access, Environments, Programming Tutorial
@section I/O
@cindex i/o
@cindex input and output requests
@cindex requests for input and output
@cindex output and input requests

@findex so
The @code{so} request will read in the file given as an argument and
include it in place of the @code{so} request.  This is quite useful for
large documents, i.e.@: keeping each chapter in a separate file.
@xref{gsoelim}, for more information.

@findex mso
The @code{mso} request is the same as the @code{so} request except that
the file is searched for in the same way that @file{tmac.@var{name}} is
searched for when the @samp{-m@var{name}} option is specified.

@findex cf
@cindex transparent output
@cindex output, transparent
The @code{cf} and @code{trf} requests are to include a file.  It will
transparently output the contents of file filename.  Each line is output
as it were preceded by @code{\!}; however, the lines are not subject to
copy-mode interpretation.  If the file does not end with a newline, then
a newline will be added.  For example, you can define a macro@w{
}@code{x} containing the contents of file@w{ }@file{f}, using

@example
.di x
.trf f
.di
@end example

The request @w{@code{.cf @var{filename}}}, when used in a diversion,
will embed in the diversion an object which, when reread, will cause the
contents of @var{filename} to be transparently copied through to the
output.  In @sc{Unix} @code{troff}, the contents of @var{filename} is
immediately copied through to the output regardless of whether there is
a current diversion; this behaviour is so anomalous that it must be
considered a bug.

@findex trf
With @code{trf}, unlike @code{cf}, the file cannot contain characters
such as NUL that are not legal troff input characters.

@findex nx
The @code{nx} request will force @code{gtroff} to continue processing of
the file specified as an argument.

@findex rd
The @code{rd} request will read from standard input, and include what is
read as though it were part of the input file.  Text is read until a
blank line is encountered.

@cindex form letters
@cindex letters, form
Using these two requests you can set up form letters.  The form letter
template is constructed like this:

@example
.ce
\*(td
.sp 2
.nf
.rd
.sp
.rd
.fi
Body of letter.
.bp
.nx repeat.let
@end example

@findex ex
@noindent
When this is run, the following file should be redirected in.  Note that
requests included in this file are executed as though they were part of
the form letter.  The last block of input is the @code{ex} requests
which tells groff to stop processing.  If this was not there, groff
would not know when to stop.

@example
Trent A. Fisher
708 NW 19th Av., #202
Portland, OR  97209

Dear Trent,

Len Adollar
4315 Sierra Vista
San Diego, CA  92103

Dear Mr. Adollar,

.ex
@end example

@findex pi
@code{pi}

@c XXX documentation

@findex sy
The @code{sy} request will allow arbitrary system commands to be
executed from within a @code{gtroff} document.  The output is not saved
anyplace, so it is up to you to do so.

@c XXX add info about safer and unsafe mode

For example, the following example will introduce the current time
into your document:

@cindex time, current
@cindex current time
@pindex perl
@example
.sy perl -e 'printf ".nr H %d\\n.nr M %d\\n.nr S %d\\n",\
             (localtime(time))[2,1,0]' > /tmp/x\n[$$]
.so /tmp/x\n[$$]
.sy rm /tmp/x\n[$$]
\nH:\nM:\nS
@end example

@noindent
Note that this works by having the @code{perl} script (run by @code{sy})
print out the @code{nr} requests which will set the number registers
@samp{H}, @samp{M} and @samp{S}, and then reads those commands in with
the @code{so} request.

@vindex systat
The @code{systat} number register contains the return value of the
@code{system()} function executed by the last @code{sy} request.

@findex open
The @code{open} request will open a file (specified as the second
argument) for writing and associate the stream (specified as the first
argument) with it.

@findex opena
The @code{opena} is like @code{open}, but if the file exists, append to
it instead of truncating it.

@findex write
@findex ds
@cindex copy-in mode
@cindex mode, copy-in
The @code{write} request will write to the file associated with the
stream specified by the first argument.  The stream must previously have
been the subject of an open request.  The remainder of the line is
interpreted as the @code{ds} request reads its second argument: A
leading @samp{"} will be stripped, and it will be read in copy-in mode.

@findex close
The @code{close} request will close the stream specified by the first
argument; stream will no longer be an acceptable argument to the
@code{write} request.

@c XXX example

@example
... example of open write &c...
@end example

@findex \V
The @code{\V} escape will interpolate the contents of the specified
environment variable, as returned by @code{getenv()}.  The argument to
@code{\V} is specified as an identifier, i.e.@: @samp{\V@var{x}},
@samp{\V(@var{xx}} or @samp{\V[@var{xxx}]}.  @code{\V} is interpreted in
copy-in mode.


@node Postprocessor Access, Miscellaneous, I/O, Programming Tutorial
@section Postprocessor Access
@cindex postprocessor access
@cindex access of postprocessor

There are two escapes which will allow you to give information directly
to the postprocessor.  This is particularly useful for embedding
@sc{PostScript} into your final document.

@findex \X
The @code{\X} escape will embed its argument into the @code{gtroff}
output preceded with @w{@samp{x X}}.

@findex \Y
The @code{\Y} escape is called with an identifier (i.e.@:
@code{\Y@var{x}}, @code{\Y(@var{xx}} or @code{\Y[@var{xxx}]}).  This is
approximately equivalent to @samp{\X'\*[@var{xxx}]'}.  However, the
contents of the string or macro @var{xxx} are not interpreted; also it
is permitted for @var{xxx} to have been defined as a macro and thus
contain newlines (it is not permitted for the argument to @code{\X} to
contain newlines).  The inclusion of newlines requires an extension to
the @sc{Unix} @code{troff} output format, and will confuse drivers that
do not know about this extension.

@xref{Output Devices}.


@node Miscellaneous, Debugging, Postprocessor Access, Programming Tutorial
@section Miscellaneous
@cindex miscellaneous

This section contains parts of @code{gtroff} which cannot (yet) be
categorized elsewhere in this manual.

@findex nm
@cindex line numbers
@cindex numbers, line
Line numbers can be printed in the left margin using the @code{nm}
request.  The first argument is the line number of the @emph{next}
output line; this defaults to@w{ }1.  The second argument indicates on
which lines numbers will be printed, i.e.@: 5 means put line numbers on
every 5@w{ }lines; this defaults to@w{ }1.  The third argument is the
space to be left between the number and your text; this defaults to@w{
}1.  The fourth argument is the indentation of the line numbers.
Without arguments, line numbers are turned off.

@findex nn
The @code{nn} request will temporarily turn off line numbering.  The
first argument is the number of lines not to be numbered; this defaults
to@w{ }1.

@c XXX (does this disable incrementing or display?)

@c XXX example

@example
... line numbering example ...
@end example

@findex mc
@cindex margin characters
@cindex characters for margins
Margin characters can be automatically printed to the right of your text
with the @code{mc} request.  The first argument is the character to be
printed, and the second argument is the distance away from your text.
With no arguments the margin characters are turned off.  If this occurs
before a break, no margin character will be printed.

@pindex nrchbar
@pindex changebar
This is quite useful for indicating text that has changed, and, in fact,
there are programs available for doing this (they are called
@code{nrchbar} and @code{changebar} and can be found in any
@samp{comp.sources.unix} archive.

@c XXX example

@example
... margin char example ...
@end example

@findex lf
@pindex soelim
@cindex multi-file documents
@cindex documents, multi-file
The primary reason for the existence of @code{lf} is to make debugging
documents which are split into many files, which are then put together
with @code{soelim} and other preprocessors.  The first argument is the
name of the file and the second argument is the input line number in
that file.  This way troff can produce error messages which are
intelligible to the user.

@c XXX example

@example
... example of soelim'ed doc ...
@end example


@node Debugging, Implementation Differences, Miscellaneous, Programming Tutorial
@section Debugging
@cindex debugging

@code{gtroff} is not easy to debug, but there are some useful features
and strategies for debugging.

@itemize @bullet{}
@item
@findex tm
The @code{tm} request will send output to stderr; this is very useful
for printing debugging output.
@item
When doing something involved it is useful to leave the debugging
statements in the code and have them turned on by a command line flag.

@example
.if \n(DB .tm debugging output
@end example

@noindent
Then you can activate these statements with:

@example
groff -rDB=1 file
@end example

@item
@findex ab
@cindex aborting
The @code{ab} request is similar to the @code{tm} request, except that
it will cause @code{gtroff} to stop processing.  With no argument it
will print @samp{User Abort}.
@item
@findex ex
@cindex exiting
The @code{ex} request will also cause @code{gtroff} to stop processing
(if encountered at the topmost level; see also @ref{I/O}.
@item
If you know you are going to get many errors and no useful output, you
can tell @code{gtroff} to suppress formatted output with the @samp{-z}
flag.
@item
@findex pm
@cindex dumping symbol table
@cindex symbol table, dumping
The @code{pm} request will dump out the entire symbol table.
@item
@findex pnr
@cindex dumping number registers
@cindex number registers, dumping
The @code{pnr} request will print the names and contents of all
currently defined number registers on stderr.
@item
@findex ptr
@cindex dumping traps
@cindex traps, dumping
The @code{ptr} request will print the names and positions of all traps
(not including input line traps and diversion traps) on stderr.  Empty
slots in the page trap list are printed as well, because they can affect
the priority of subsequently planted traps.
@item
@findex fl
@cindex flush output
@cindex output, flush
@cindex interactive use of @code{gtroff}
@cindex @code{gtroff}, interactive use
The @code{fl} request instructs @code{gtroff} to flush its output
immediately.  The intention is that this be used when using
@code{gtroff} interactively.  There is little other use for it.
@item
@findex backtrace
@cindex backtrace of input stack
@cindex input stack, backtrace
The @code{backtrace} request will print a backtrace of the input stack
on stderr.
@item
@cindex warnings
@code{gtroff} has command line options for printing out more warnings
(@samp{-w}) and for printing backtraces (@samp{-b}) when a warning or an
error occurs.  The most verbose level of warnings is @samp{-ww}.
@item
@findex warn
@vindex .warn
@cindex level of warnings
@cindex warnings, level
The @code{warn} request controls the level of warnings checked for.  The
only argument is the sum of the numbers associated with each warning
that is to be enabled; all other warnings will be disabled.  The number
associated with each warning is listed below.  For example,
@w{@code{.warn 0}} will disable all warnings, and @w{@code{.warn 1}}
will disable all warnings except that about missing characters.  If an
argument is not given, all warnings will be enabled.  The number
register @code{.warn} contains the current warning level.
@end itemize

@subsection Warnings
@cindex warnings

The warnings that can be given to @code{gtroff} are divided into the
following categories.  The name associated with each warning is used by
the @samp{-w} and @samp{-W} options; the number is used by the
@code{warn} request and by the @code{.warn} register.

@table @samp
@item char
@itemx 1
Non-existent characters.  This is enabled by default.
@item number
@itemx 2
Invalid numeric expressions.  This is enabled by default.
@xref{Expressions}.
@item break
@itemx 4
In fill mode, lines which could not be broken so that their length was
less than the line length.  This is enabled by default.
@item delim
@itemx 8
Missing or mismatched closing delimiters.
@item el
@itemx 16
@findex ie
@findex el
Use of the @code{el} request with no matching @code{ie} request.
@xref{if-else}.
@item scale
@itemx 32
Meaningless scaling indicators.
@item range
@itemx 64
Out of range arguments.
@item syntax
@itemx 128
Dubious syntax in numeric expressions.
@item di
@itemx 256
@findex di
@findex da
Use of @code{di} or @code{da} without an argument when there is no
current diversion.
@item mac
@itemx 512
@findex de
@c XXX more findex entries
Use of undefined strings, macros and diversions.  When an undefined
string, macro or diversion is used, that string is automatically defined
as empty.  So, in most cases, at most one warning will be given for each
name.
@item  reg
@itemx 1024
@findex nr
@c XXX more findex entries
Use of undefined number registers.  When an undefined number register is
used, that register is automatically defined to have a value of@w{ }0.
A definition is automatically made with a value of@w{ }0.  So, in most
cases, at most one warning will be given for use of a particular name.
@item  tab
@itemx 2048
Use of a tab character where a number was expected.
@item  right-brace
@itemx 4096
@findex \@}
Use of @code{\@}} where a number was expected.
@item  missing
@itemx 8192
Requests that are missing non-optional arguments.
@item  input
@itemx 16384
Illegal input characters.
@item  escape
@itemx 32768
Unrecognized escape sequences.  When an unrecognized escape sequence is
encountered, the escape character is ignored.
@item  space
@itemx 65536
@cindex compatibility mode
Missing space between a request or macro and its argument.  This warning
will be given when an undefined name longer than two characters is
encountered, and the first two characters of the name make a defined
name.  The request or macro will not be invoked.  When this warning is
given, no macro is automatically defined.  This is enabled by default.
This warning will never occur in compatibility mode.
@item  font
@itemx 131072
Non-existent fonts.  This is enabled by default.
@item all
All warnings except @samp{di}, @samp{mac} and @samp{reg}.  It is
intended that this covers all warnings that are useful with traditional
macro packages.
@item w
All warnings.
@end table


@node Implementation Differences, Summary, Debugging, Programming Tutorial
@section Implementation Differences
@cindex implementation differences
@cindex differences in implementation
@cindex compatibility mode
@cindex mode, compatibility

GNU @code{troff} has a number of features which cause incompatibilities
with documents written with old versions of @code{troff}.

@cindex long names
@cindex names, long
Long names cause some incompatibilities.  @sc{Unix} @code{troff} will
interpret

@example
.dsabcd
@end example

@findex \*
@findex \n
@findex cp
@vindex .C
@noindent
as defining a string @samp{ab} with contents @samp{cd}.  Normally, GNU
@code{troff} will interpret this as a call of a macro named
@code{dsabcd}.  Also @sc{Unix} @code{troff} will interpret @code{\*[} or
@code{\n[} as references to a string or number register called @samp{[}.
In GNU @code{troff}, however, this will normally be interpreted as the
start of a long name.  In compatibility mode GNU @code{troff} will
interpret these things in the traditional way.  In compatibility mode,
however, long names are not recognized.  Compatibility mode can be
turned on with the @samp{-C} command line option, and turned on or off
with the @code{cp} request.  The number register @code{.C} is@w{ }1 if
compatibility mode is on, 0@w{ }otherwise.

@findex \A
@findex \|
@findex \^
@findex \&
@findex \@}
@findex \@{
@findex \@key{SP}
@findex \'
@findex \`
@findex \-
@findex \_
@findex \!
@findex \%
@findex \c
GNU @code{troff} does not allow the use of the escape sequences
@code{\|}, @code{\^}, @code{\&}, @code{\@}}, @code{\@{},
@code{\@key{SP}}, @code{\'}, @code{\`}, @code{\-}, @code{\_}, @code{\!},
@code{\%}, and @code{\c} in names of strings, macros, diversions, number
registers, fonts or environments; @sc{Unix} @code{troff} does.  The
@code{\A} escape sequence may be helpful in avoiding use of these escape
sequences in names.

@cindex fractional point sizes
@cindex point sizes, fractional
@findex ps
Fractional pointsizes cause one noteworthy incompatibility.  In
@sc{Unix} @code{troff} the @code{ps} request ignores scale indicators
and thus

@example
.ps 10u
@end example

@noindent
will set the pointsize to 10@w{ }points, whereas in GNU @code{troff} it
will set the pointsize to 10@w{ }scaled points.  @xref{Fractional Type
Sizes}, for more information.

@findex bd
@findex cs
@findex tkf
@findex tr
@findex fp
@cindex input and output characters
@cindex output characters
@cindex characters, input and output
In GNU @code{troff} there is a fundamental difference between
unformatted, input characters, and formatted, output characters.
Everything that affects how an output character will be output is stored
with the character; once an output character has been constructed it is
unaffected by any subsequent requests that are executed, including
@code{bd}, @code{cs}, @code{tkf}, @code{tr}, or @code{fp} requests.
Normally output characters are constructed from input characters at the
moment immediately before the character is added to the current output
line.  Macros, diversions and strings are all, in fact, the same type of
object; they contain lists of input characters and output characters in
any combination.  An output character does not behave like an input
character for the purposes of macro processing; it does not inherit any
of the special properties that the input character from which it was
constructed might have had.  For example,

@example
.di x
\\\\
.br
.di
.x
@end example

@findex \e
@findex \!
@findex \?
@cindex transparent output
@cindex output, transparent
@noindent
will print @samp{\\} in GNU @code{troff}; each pair of input backslashes
is turned into one output backslash and the resulting output backslashes
are not interpreted as escape characters when they are reread.
@sc{Unix} @code{troff} would interpret them as escape characters when
they were reread and would end up printing one @samp{\}.  The correct
way to obtain a printable backslash is to use the @code{\e} escape
sequence: This will always print a single instance of the current escape
character, regardless of whether or not it is used in a diversion; it
will also work in both GNU @code{troff} and @sc{Unix} @code{troff}.  If
you wish for some reason to store in a diversion an escape sequence that
will be interpreted when the diversion is reread, you can either use the
traditional @code{\!} transparent output facility, or, if this is
unsuitable, the new @code{\?} escape sequence.

@xref{Diversions}, for more information.


@node Summary,  , Implementation Differences, Programming Tutorial
@section Summary
@cindex summary

@c XXX documentation



@node Preprocessors, Output Devices, Programming Tutorial, Top
@chapter Preprocessors
@cindex preprocessors

This chapter describes all preprocessors that come with @code{groff} or
which are freely available.

@menu
* geqn::                        
* gtbl::                        
* gpic::                        
* ggrn::                        
* grap::                        
* grefer::                      
* gsoelim::                     
@end menu


@node geqn, gtbl, Preprocessors, Preprocessors
@section @code{geqn}
@cindex @code{eqn}
@cindex @code{geqn}

@c XXX

@menu
* Invoking geqn::               
@end menu

@node Invoking geqn,  , geqn, geqn
@subsection Invoking @code{geqn}
@cindex invoking @code{geqn}
@cindex @code{geqn}, invoking

@c XXX


@node gtbl, gpic, geqn, Preprocessors
@section @code{gtbl}
@cindex @code{tbl}
@cindex @code{gtbl}

@c XXX

@menu
* Invoking gtbl::               
@end menu

@node Invoking gtbl,  , gtbl, gtbl
@subsection Invoking @code{gtbl}
@cindex invoking @code{gtbl}
@cindex @code{gtbl}, invoking

@c XXX


@node gpic, ggrn, gtbl, Preprocessors
@section @code{gpic}
@cindex @code{pic}
@cindex @code{gpic}

@c XXX

@menu
* Invoking gpic::               
@end menu

@node Invoking gpic,  , gpic, gpic
@subsection Invoking @code{gpic}
@cindex invoking @code{gpic}
@cindex @code{gpic}, invoking

@c XXX


@node ggrn, grap, gpic, Preprocessors
@section @code{ggrn}
@cindex @code{grn}
@cindex @code{ggrn}

@c XXX

@menu
* Invoking ggrn::               
@end menu

@node Invoking ggrn,  , ggrn, ggrn
@subsection Invoking @code{ggrn}
@cindex invoking @code{ggrn}
@cindex @code{ggrn}, invoking

@c XXX


@node grap, grefer, ggrn, Preprocessors
@section @code{grap}
@cindex @code{grap}

A freely available implementation of @code{grap}, written by Ted Faber,
is available as an extra package from the following address:

@display
@url{http://www.lunabase.org/~faber/Vault/software/grap/}
@end display


@node grefer, gsoelim, grap, Preprocessors
@section @code{grefer}
@cindex @code{refer}
@cindex @code{grefer}

@c XXX

@menu
* Invoking grefer::             
@end menu

@node Invoking grefer,  , grefer, grefer
@subsection Invoking @code{grefer}
@cindex invoking @code{grefer}
@cindex @code{grefer}, invoking

@c XXX


@node gsoelim,  , grefer, Preprocessors
@section @code{gsoelim}
@cindex @code{soelim}
@cindex @code{gsoelim}

@c XXX

@menu
* Invoking gsoelim::            
@end menu

@node Invoking gsoelim,  , gsoelim, gsoelim
@subsection Invoking @code{gsoelim}
@cindex invoking @code{gsoelim}
@cindex @code{gsoelim}, invoking

@c XXX



@node Output Devices, File formats, Preprocessors, Top
@chapter Output Devices
@cindex output devices
@cindex devices for output

@c XXX

@menu
* Special Characters::          
* grotty::                      
* grops::                       
* grodvi::                      
* grolj4::                      
* grolbp::                      
* grohtml::                     
* gxditview::                   
@end menu


@node Special Characters, grotty, Output Devices, Output Devices
@section Special Characters
@cindex special characters
@cindex characters, special

@c XXX

@xref{Font Files}.


@node grotty, grops, Special Characters, Output Devices
@section @code{grotty}
@cindex @code{grotty}

@c XXX

@menu
* Invoking grotty::             
@end menu

@node Invoking grotty,  , grotty, grotty
@subsection Invoking @code{grotty}
@cindex invoking @code{grotty}
@cindex @code{grotty}, invoking

@c XXX


@node grops, grodvi, grotty, Output Devices
@section @code{grops}
@cindex @code{grops}

@c XXX

@menu
* Invoking grops::              
* Embedding PostScript::        
@end menu

@node Invoking grops, Embedding PostScript, grops, grops
@subsection Invoking @code{grops}
@cindex invoking @code{grops}
@cindex @code{grops}, invoking

@c XXX

@node Embedding PostScript,  , Invoking grops, grops
@subsection Embedding PostScript
@cindex embedding postscript
@cindex postscript, embedding

@c XXX


@node grodvi, grolj4, grops, Output Devices
@section @code{grodvi}
@cindex @code{grodvi}

@c XXX

@menu
* Invoking grodvi::             
@end menu

@node Invoking grodvi,  , grodvi, grodvi
@subsection Invoking @code{grodvi}
@cindex invoking @code{grodvi}
@cindex @code{grodvi}, invoking

@c XXX


@node grolj4, grolbp, grodvi, Output Devices
@section @code{grolj4}
@cindex @code{grolj4}

@c XXX

@menu
* Invoking grolj4::             
@end menu

@node Invoking grolj4,  , grolj4, grolj4
@subsection Invoking @code{grolj4}
@cindex invoking @code{grolj4}
@cindex @code{grolj4}, invoking

@c XXX


@node grolbp, grohtml, grolj4, Output Devices
@section @code{grolbp}
@cindex @code{grolbp}

@c XXX

@menu
* Invoking grolbp::             
@end menu

@node Invoking grolbp,  , grolbp, grolbp
@subsection Invoking @code{grolbp}
@cindex invoking @code{grolbp}
@cindex @code{grolbp}, invoking

@c XXX


@node grohtml, gxditview, grolbp, Output Devices
@section @code{grohtml}
@cindex @code{grohtml}

@c XXX

@menu
* Invoking grohtml::            
@end menu

@node Invoking grohtml,  , grohtml, grohtml
@subsection Invoking @code{grohtml}
@cindex invoking @code{grohtml}
@cindex @code{grohtml}, invoking

@c XXX


@node gxditview,  , grohtml, Output Devices
@section @code{gxditview}
@cindex @code{gxditview}

@c XXX

@menu
* Invoking gxditview::          
@end menu

@node Invoking gxditview,  , gxditview, gxditview
@subsection Invoking @code{gxditview}
@cindex invoking @code{gxditview}
@cindex @code{gxditview}, invoking

@c XXX
@c X11's xditview



@node File formats, Installation, Output Devices, Top
@chapter File formats
@cindex file formats
@cindex formats, file

@c XXX

@menu
* gtroff Output::               
* Font Files::                  
@end menu


@node gtroff Output, Font Files, File formats, File formats
@section @code{gtroff} Output
@cindex @code{gtroff} output
@cindex output, @code{gtroff}

This section describes the format output of GNU @code{troff}.  The
output format used by GNU @code{troff} is very similar to that used by
@sc{Unix} device-independent @code{troff} (@code{ditroff}).

@menu
* Output Format::               
* Device Control::              
* Drawing Functions::           
* Line Continuation::           
@end menu

@node Output Format, Device Control, gtroff Output, gtroff Output
@subsection Output Format
@cindex output format
@cindex format of output

@cindex 8-bit input
@cindex input, 8-bit
The output format is text based, as opposed to a binary format (like
@TeX{} dvi).  The output format is @w{8-bit} clean, thus single
characters can have the eighth bit set, as can the names of fonts and
special characters.

The output format consists of single command characters with attached
parameters which are separated from subsequent text by whitespace or a
newline.

The names of characters and fonts can be of arbitrary length; drivers
should not assume that they will be only two characters long (as
@code{ditroff} does).

When a character is to be printed, that character will always be in the
current font.  Unlike @code{ditroff}, it is not necessary for drivers to
search special fonts to find a character.

@table @code
@item H@var{n}
@c XXX
@item V@var{n}
@c XXX
@item h@var{n}
@c XXX
@item v@var{n}
@c XXX
@item c@var{n}
@c XXX
@item C@var{n}
@c XXX
@item @var{nn}@var{c}
@c XXX
@item t@var{xxx}
@var{xxx} is any sequence of characters terminated by a space or a
newline; the first character should be printed at the current position,
the the current horizontal position should be increased by the width of
the first character, and so on for each character.  The width of the
character is that given in the font file, appropriately scaled for the
current point size, and rounded so that it is a multiple of the
horizontal resolution.  Special characters cannot be printed using this
command.

@kindex tcommand
@pindex DESC
This command is only allowed if the @samp{tcommand} line is present in
the @file{DESC} file.
@item u@var{n} @var{xxx}
This is same as the @samp{t} command except that after printing each
character, the current horizontal position is increased by the sum of
the width of that character and@w{ }@var{n}.

This command is only allowed if the @samp{tcommand} line is present in
the @file{DESC} file.
@item n@var{a}@var{b}
@c XXX
@item p@var{n}
@c XXX
@item s@var{n}
@kindex sizescale
@pindex DESC
The argument to the @samp{s} command is in scaled points (units of
points/@var{n}, where @var{n} is the argument to the @samp{sizescale}
command in the @file{DESC} file).
@item f@var{n}
@item x @dots{} \n
Device control.
@c XXX more info
@item D@var{c} @var{x}@dots{}\n
@c XXX
@end table

@node Device Control, Drawing Functions, Output Format, gtroff Output
@subsection Device Control
@cindex device control
@cindex control of devices

The @samp{x} command is normally followed by a letter or word indicating
the function to perform, followed by white space separated arguments.

The first argument can be abreviated to the first letter.

@table @code
@item x init
@c XXX
@item x T
@c XXX
@item x res @var{n} @var{h} @var{v}
@c XXX
@item x H
@c XXX more info
The argument to the @w{@samp{x Height}} command is also in scaled
points.
@end table

The first three output commands are guaranteed to be:

@example
x T device
x res n h v
x init
@end example

@noindent
For example, the input

@example
crunchy \fH\s+2frog\s0\fP!?
@end example

@noindent
will produce

@c XXX example

@example
... sample output here ...
@end example

@node Drawing Functions, Line Continuation, Device Control, gtroff Output
@subsection Drawing Functions
@cindex drawing functions
@cindex functions for drawing

@pindex gpic
The @samp{D} drawing command has been extended.  These extensions will
only be used by GNU @code{pic} if the @samp{-x} option is given.

@xref{Drawing Requests}.

@table @code
@c XXX ...
@item Df @var{n}
Set the shade of gray to be used for filling solid objects to@w{
}@var{n}; @var{n}@w{ }must be an integer between 0 and@w{ }1000, where 0
corresponds solid white and 1000 to solid black, and values in between
correspond to intermediate shades of gray.  This applies only to solid
circles, solid ellipses and solid polygons.  By default, a level of@w{
}1000 will be used.  Whatever color a solid object has, it should
completely obscure everything beneath it.  A value greater than@w{ }1000
or less than@w{ }0 can also be used: this means fill with the shade of
gray that is currently being used for lines and text.  Normally this
will be black, but some drivers may provide a way of changing this.
@item DC @var{d}
Draw a solid circle with a diameter of@w{ }@var{d} with the leftmost
point at the current position.
@item DE @var{dx} @var{dy}
Draw a solid ellipse with a horizontal diameter of@w{ }@var{dx} and a
vertical diameter of@w{ }@var{dy} with the leftmost point at the current
position.
@item Dp @var{dx1} @var{dy1} @var{dx2} @var{dy2} @dots{} @var{dxn} @var{dyn}
Draw a polygon with.  The first vertex is at the current position, the
second vertex at an offset (@var{dx1},@var{dy1}) from the current
position, the second vertex at an offset (@var{dx2},@var{dy2}) from the
first vertex, and so on up to the @var{n}-th vertex.  At the moment, GNU
@code{pic} only uses this command to generate triangles and rectangles.
@item DP @var{dx1} @var{dy1} @var{dx2} @var{dy2} @dots{} @var{dxn} @var{dyn}
Like @code{Dp} but draw a solid rather than outlined polygon.
@item Dt @var{n}
@cindex line thickness
@cindex thickness of lines
Set the current line thickness to @var{n}@w{ }machine units.
Traditionally, @sc{Unix} @code{troff} drivers use a line thickness
proportional to the current point size; drivers should continue to do
this if no @code{Dt} command has been given, or if a @code{Dt} command
has been given with a negative value of@w{ }@var{n}.  A zero value of@w{
}@var{n} selects the smallest available line thickness.
@end table

@findex \D
A difficulty arises in how the current position should be changed after
the execution of these commands.  This is not of great importance since
the code generated by GNU @code{pic} does not depend on this.  Given a
drawing command of the form

@example
\D'@var{c} @var{x1} @var{y1} @var{x2} @var{y2} @dots{} @var{xn} @var{yn}'
@end example

@findex \w
@vindex st
@findex sb
@noindent
where @var{c} is not one of @samp{c}, @samp{e}, @samp{l}, @samp{a} or
@samp{~}, @sc{Unix} @code{troff} will treat each of the x@w{ }value as a
horizontal quantity, and each of the y@w{ }values as a vertical quantity
and will assume that the width of the drawn object is sum if all x@w{
}values, and that the height is the sum of all y@w{ }values.  (The
assumption about the height can be seen by examining the @code{st} and
@code{sb} registers after using such a @code{D}@w{ }command in a
@code{\w} escape sequence.)  This rule also holds for all the original
drawing commands with the exception of @code{De}.  For the sake of
compatibility GNU @code{troff} also follows this rule, even though it
produces an ugly result in the case of the @code{Df}, @code{Dt}, and, to
a lesser extent, @code{DE}@w{ }commands.  Thus after executing a
@code{D}@w{ }command of the form

@example
D@var{c} @var{x1} @var{y1} @var{x2} @var{y2} @dots{} @var{xn} @var{yn}
@end example

@noindent
the current position should be increased horizontally by the sum of all
x@w{ }values and vertically by the sum of all y@w{ }values.

@node Line Continuation,  , Drawing Functions, gtroff Output
@subsection Line Continuation
@cindex line continuation in output commands
@cindex output commands, line continuation

There is a continuation convention which permits the argument to the
@w{@samp{x X}} command to contain newlines: When outputting the argument
to the @w{@samp{x X}} command, GNU @code{troff} will follow each newline
in the argument with a @samp{+} character (as usual, it will terminate
the entire argument with a newline); thus if the line after the line
containing the @w{@samp{x X}} command starts with @samp{+}, then the
newline ending the line containing the @w{@samp{x X}} command should be
treated as part of the argument to the @w{@samp{x X}} command, the
@samp{+} should be ignored, and the part of the line following the
@samp{+} should be treated like the part of the line following the
@w{@samp{x X}} command.


@node Font Files,  , gtroff Output, File formats
@section Font Files
@cindex font files
@cindex files, font

The @code{gtroff} font format is roughly a superset of the
@code{ditroff} font format.  Unlike the @code{ditroff} font format,
there is no associated binary format; all files are text files.  The
font files for device @var{name} are stored in a directory
@file{dev@var{name}}.  There are two types of file: a device description
file called @file{DESC} and for each font@w{ }@samp{F} a font file
called@w{ }@file{F}.

@menu
* DESC file format::            
* Font file format::            
@end menu

@node DESC file format, Font file format, Font Files, Font Files
@subsection @file{DESC} file format
@cindex @file{DESC} file format
@cindex font description file format
@cindex format of font description file
@pindex DESC

The @file{DESC} file can contain the following types of line:

@table @code
@kindex res
@item res @var{n}
There are @var{n} machine units per inch.
@kindex hor
@item hor @var{n}
The horizontal resolution is @var{n} machine units.
@kindex vert
@item vert @var{n}
The vertical resolution is @var{n} machine units.
@kindex sizescale
@item sizescale @var{n}
The scale factor for pointsizes.  By default this has a value of@w{ }1.
One scaled point is equal to one point/@var{n}.  The arguments to the
@code{unitwidth} and @code{sizes} commands are given in scaled points.
@xref{Fractional Type Sizes}, for more information.
@kindex unitwidth
@item unitwidth @var{n}
Quantities in the font files are given in machine units for fonts whose
point size is @var{n}@w{ }scaled points.
@kindex tcommand
@item tcommand
This means that the postprocessor can handle the @samp{t} and @samp{u}
output commands.
@kindex sizes
@item sizes @var{s1} @var{s2} @dots{} @var{sn} 0
This means that the device has fonts at @var{s1}, @var{s2}, @dots{}
@var{sn} scaled points.  The list of sizes must be terminated by a@w{
}0.  Each @var{si} can also be a range of sizes @var{m}-@var{n}.  The
list can extend over more than one line.
@kindex styles
@item styles @var{S1} @var{S2} @dots{} @var{Sm}
The first @var{m}@w{ }font positions will be associated with styles
@var{S1} @dots{} @var{Sm}.
@kindex fonts
@item fonts @var{n} @var{F1} @var{F2} @var{F3} @dots{} @var{Fn}
Fonts @var{F1} @dots{} @var{Fn} will be mounted in the font positions
@var{m}+1, @dots{}, @var{m}+@var{n} where @var{m} is the number of
styles.  This command may extend over more than one line.  A font name
of@var{ }0 will cause no font to be mounted on the corresponding font
position.
@kindex family
@item family @var{fam}
The default font family is @var{fam}.
@kindex charset
@item charset
This line and everything following in the file are ignored.  It is
allowed for the sake of backwards compatibility.
@end table

The @code{res}, @code{unitwidth}, @code{fonts} and @code{sizes} lines
are compulsory.  Other commands are ignored by @code{gtroff} but may be
used by postprocessors to store arbitrary information about the device
in the @file{DESC} file.

@c XXX add other commands resp. xrefs to output devices
@c XXX add obsolete commands

@node Font file format,  , DESC file format, Font Files
@subsection Font file format
@cindex font file format
@cindex format of font files

A font file has two sections.  The first section is a sequence of lines
each containing a sequence of blank delimited words; the first word in
the line is a key, and subsequent words give a value for that key.

@table @code
@kindex name
@item name @var{F}
The name of the font is@w{ }@var{F}.
@kindex spacewidth
@item spacewidth @var{n}
The normal width of a space is@w{ }@var{n}.
@kindex slant
@item slant @var{n}
The characters of the font have a slant of @var{n}@w{ }degrees.
(Positive means forward.)
@kindex ligatures
@item ligatures @var{lig1} @var{lig2} @dots{} @var{lign} [0]
Characters @var{lig1}, @var{lig2}, @dots{}, @var{lign} are ligatures;
possible ligatures are @samp{ff}, @samp{fi}, @samp{fl}, @samp{ffi} and
@samp{ffl}.  For backwards compatibiliy, the list of ligatures may be
terminated with a@w{ }0.  The list of ligatures may not extend over more
than one line.
@kindex special
@item special
The font is special; this means that when a character is requested that
is not present in the current font, it will be searched for in any
special fonts that are mounted.
@end table

Other commands are ignored by @code{gtroff} but may be used by
postprocessors to store arbitrary information about the font in the font
file.

@cindex comments in font files
@cindex font files, comments
@kindex #
The first section can contain comments which start with the @samp{#}
character and extend to the end of a line.

The second section contains one or two subsections.  It must contain a
@code{charset} subsection and it may also contain a @code{kernpairs}
subsection.  These subsections can appear in any order.  Each
subsection starts with a word on a line by itself.

@kindex charset
The word @code{charset} starts the character set subsection.  The
@code{charset} line is followed by a sequence of lines.  Each line gives
information for one character.  A line comprises a number of fields
separated by blanks or tabs.  The format is

@c XXX fix it for new HTML additions

@example
@var{name} @var{metrics} @var{type} @var{code} @var{comment}
@end example

@cindex 8-bit input
@cindex input, 8-bit
@findex \N
@kindex ---
@noindent
@var{name} identifies the character: If @var{name} is a single
character@w{ }@var{c} then it corresponds to the @code{gtroff} input
character @var{c}; if it is of the form @samp{\@var{c}} where @var{c} is
a single character, then it corresponds to the @code{gtroff} input
character@w{ }\@var{c}; otherwise it corresponds to the groff input
character @samp{\[@var{name}]}.  (If it is exactly two characters
@var{xx} it can be entered as @samp{\(@var{xx}}.)  @code{gtroff}
supports 8-bit characters; however some utilities have difficulties with
eight-bit characters.  For this reason, there is a convention that the
name @samp{char@var{n}} is equivalent to the single character whose code
is@w{ }@var{n}.  For example, @samp{char163} would be equivalent to the
character with code@w{ }163 which is the pounds sterling sign in @w{ISO
Latin-1} character set.  The name @samp{---} is special and indicates
that the character is unnamed; such characters can only be used by means
of the @code{\N} escape sequence in troff.

@c XXX input encodings vs. output encodings

The @var{type} field gives the character type:

@table @code
@item 1
the character has an descender, for example, `p';
@item 2
the character has an ascender, for example, `b';
@item 3
the character has both an ascender and a descender, for example, `('.
@end table

The @var{code} field gives the code which the postprocessor uses to
print the character.  The character can also be input to @code{gtroff}
using this code by means of the @code{\N} escape sequence.  The code can
be any integer.  If it starts with @samp{0} it will be interpreted as
octal; if it starts with @samp{0x} or @samp{0X} it will be intepreted as
hexadecimal.

Anything on the line after the @var{code} field will be ignored.

The @var{metrics} field has the form:

@smallexample
@var{width[,height[,depth[,italic_correction[,left_italic_correction[,subscript_correction]]]]]}
@end smallexample

There must not be any spaces between these subfields.  Missing subfields
are assumed to be@w{ }0.  The subfields are all decimal integers.  Since
there is no associated binary format, these values are not required to
fit into a variable of type @samp{char} as they are in @code{ditroff}.
The @var{width} subfield gives the width of the character.  The
@var{height} subfield gives the height of the character (upwards is
positive); if a character does not extend above the baseline, it should
be given a zero height, rather than a negative height.  The @var{depth}
subfield gives the depth of the character, that is, the distance below
the lowest point below the baseline to which the character extends
(downwards is positive); if a character does not extend below above the
baseline, it should be given a zero depth, rather than a negative depth.
The @var{italic_correction} subfield gives the amount of space that
should be added after the character when it is immediately to be
followed by a character from a roman font.  The
@var{left_italic_correction} subfield gives the amount of space that
should be added before the character when it is immediately to be
preceded by a character from a roman font.  The
@var{subscript_correction} gives the amount of space that should be
added after a character before adding a subscript.  This should be less
than the italic correction.

A line in the @code{charset} section can also have the format

@example
@var{name} "
@end example

@noindent
This indicates that @var{name} is just another name for the character
mentioned in the preceding line.

@kindex kernpairs
The word @code{kernpairs} starts the kernpairs section.  This contains a
sequence of lines of the form:

@example
@var{c1} @var{c2} @var{n}
@end example

This means that when character @var{c1} appears next to character
@var{c2} the space between them should be increased by@w{ }@var{n}.
Most entries in kernpairs section will have a negative value for@w{
}@var{n}.



@node Installation, Request and Operator Index, File formats, Top
@chapter Installation
@cindex installation

@c XXX



@node Request and Operator Index, Register Index, Installation, Top
@chapter Request and Operator Index

@printindex fn



@node Register Index, Font File Keyword Index, Request and Operator Index, Top
@chapter Register Index

@printindex vr



@node Font File Keyword Index, Program and File Index, Register Index, Top
@chapter Font File Keyword Index

@printindex ky



@node Program and File Index, Concept Index, Font File Keyword Index, Top
@chapter Program  and File Index

@printindex pg



@node Concept Index,  , Program and File Index, Top
@chapter Concept Index

@printindex cp



@summarycontents
@contents
@bye