3 @c A menu is needed before every deeper *section nesting of @node's; run
4 @c M-x texinfo-all-menus-update
5 @c to automagically fill in these menus before saving changes
7 @c FIXME: singular vs. plural: Beams/Beam
11 @chapter Notation manual
13 This chapter describes all the different types of notation supported
14 by LilyPond. It is intended as a reference for users that are already
15 somewhat familiar with using LilyPond.
19 * Easier music entry::
33 * Contemporary notation::
40 @c FIXME: Note entry vs Music entry at top level menu is confusing.
46 The basic elements of any piece of music are the notes. This section
47 is about basic notation elements notes, rests and related constructs,
48 such as stems, tuplets and ties.
53 * Chromatic alterations::
68 A note is printed by specifying its pitch and then its duration:
69 @footnote{Notes constitute the most basic elements of LilyPond input,
70 but they do not form valid input on their own without a @code{\score}
71 block. However, for the sake of brevity and simplicity we will
72 generally omit @code{\score} blocks and @code{\paper} declarations in
75 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
84 @cindex Note specification
86 @cindex entering notes
88 The most common syntax for pitch entry is used in @code{\chords} and
89 @code{\notes} mode. In Note and Chord mode, pitches may be designated
90 by names. The notes are specified by the letters @code{a} through
91 @code{g}, while the octave is formed with notes ranging from @code{c}
92 to @code{b}. The pitch @code{c} is an octave below middle C and the
93 letters span the octave above that C:
95 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
97 a,4 b, c d e f g a b c' d' e' \clef treble f' g' a' b' c''
100 @cindex note names, Dutch
102 A sharp is formed by adding @code{-is} to the end of a pitch name and
103 a flat is formed by adding @code{-es}. Double sharps and double flats
104 are obtained by adding @code{-isis} or @code{-eses}. These
105 names are the Dutch note names. In Dutch, @code{aes} is contracted to
106 @code{as}, but both forms are accepted. Similarly, both
107 @code{es} and @code{ees} are accepted.
109 Half-flats and half-sharps are formed by adding @code{-eh} and
110 @code{-ih}; the following is a series of Cs with increasing pitches:
112 @cindex quarter tones
113 @cindex semi-flats, semi-sharps
115 @lilypond[verbatim,relative 2]
127 There are predefined sets of note names for various other languages.
128 To use them, include the language specific init file. For
129 example: @code{\include "english.ly"}. The available language files
130 and the note names they define are:
135 Note Names sharp flat
136 nederlands.ly c d e f g a bes b -is -es
137 english.ly c d e f g a bf b -s/-sharp -f/-flat
139 deutsch.ly c d e f g a b h -is -es
140 norsk.ly c d e f g a b h -iss/-is -ess/-es
141 svenska.ly c d e f g a b h -iss -ess
142 italiano.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d -b
143 catalan.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -d/-s -b
144 espanol.ly do re mi fa sol la sib si -s -b
153 The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of
154 single quote (`@code{'}') characters or a series of comma
155 (`@code{,}') characters. Each @code{'} raises the pitch by one
156 octave; each @code{,} lowers the pitch by an octave:
158 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
159 c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'
165 Notes can be hidden and unhidden with the following commands:
167 @cindex @code{\hideNotes}
169 @cindex @code{\unHideNotes}
175 Internals: @internalsref{NoteEvent}, and @internalsref{NoteHead}.
177 @node Chromatic alterations
178 @subsection Chromatic alterations
180 Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also
181 print them manually. A reminder accidental
182 @cindex reminder accidental
184 can be forced by adding an exclamation mark @code{!}
185 after the pitch. A cautionary accidental
186 @cindex cautionary accidental
187 @cindex parenthesized accidental
188 (i.e. an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the
189 question mark `@code{?}' after the pitch:
191 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
192 cis' cis' cis'! cis'?
196 The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many
197 ways. For more information, refer to @ref{Accidentals}.
202 A chord is formed by a enclosing a set of pitches in @code{<} and
203 @code{>}. A chord may be followed by a duration, and a set of
204 articulations, just like simple notes.
214 Rests are entered like notes, with the note name @code{r}:
216 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
220 Whole bar rests, centered in middle of the bar,
221 must be done with multi measure rests. They are discussed in
222 @ref{Multi measure rests}.
225 A rest's vertical position may be explicitly specified by entering a
226 note with the @code{\rest} keyword appended. This makes manual
227 formatting in polyphonic music easier. Rest collision testing will
228 leave these rests alone:
230 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
236 Internals: @internalsref{RestEvent}, and @internalsref{Rest}.
243 @cindex Invisible rest
246 An invisible rest (also called a `skip') can be entered like a note
247 with note name `@code{s}' or with @code{\skip @var{duration}}:
249 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
253 The @code{s} syntax is only available in Note mode and Chord mode. In
254 other situations, you should use the @code{\skip} command:
256 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
259 { \time 4/8 \skip 2 \time 4/4 }
260 \notes\relative c'' { a2 a1 }
265 The skip command is merely an empty musical placeholder. It does not
266 produce any output, not even transparent output.
270 Internals: @internalsref{SkipEvent}.
275 @subsection Durations
281 In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations are designated by numbers
282 and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For example,
283 a quarter note is entered using a @code{4} (since it is a 1/4 note), while
284 a half note is entered using a @code{2} (since it is a 1/2 note). For notes
285 longer than a whole you must use variables:
287 @c FIXME: what is an identifier? I do not think it's been introduced yet.
288 @c and if it has, I obviously skipped that part. - Graham
292 c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
294 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
299 \notes \relative c'' {
301 a1 a2 a4 a8 a16 a32 a64 a64
303 r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64
308 \remove "Clef_engraver"
309 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
310 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
311 \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
318 If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previously entered
319 duration. The default for the first note is a quarter note. The duration
320 can be followed by dots (`@code{.}') in order to obtain dotted note
324 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
325 a' b' c''8 b' a'4 a'4. b'4.. c'8.
330 You can alter the length of duration by a fraction @var{N/M}
331 appending `@code{*}@var{N/M}' (or `@code{*}@var{N}' if @var{M=1}). This
332 will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.
333 In the following example, the first three notes take up exactly two
335 @lilypond[fragment,relative 2,verbatim]
337 a4*2/3 gis4*2/3 a4*2/3
344 Dots are normally moved up to avoid staff lines, except in polyphonic
345 situations. The following commands may be used to force a particular
348 @cindex @code{\dotsUp}
350 @cindex @code{\dotsDown}
352 @cindex @code{\dotsBoth}
357 Internals: @internalsref{Dots}, and @internalsref{DotColumn}.
362 Whenever a note is found, a @internalsref{Stem} object is created
363 automatically. For whole notes and rests, they are also created but
368 @cindex @code{\stemUp}
370 @cindex @code{\stemDown}
372 @cindex @code{\stemBoth}
383 A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in
384 effect extends the length of a note. Ties should not be confused with
385 slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate
386 musical phrasing. A tie is entered using the tilde symbol `@code{~}':
388 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
389 e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>
392 When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads whose pitches match
393 are connected. When no note heads match, no ties will be created.
395 In its meaning a tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar
396 to the augmentation dot; in the following example there are two ways of
397 notating exactly the same concept:
399 @lilypond[fragment, singleline,quote]
400 \time 3/4 c'2. c'2 ~ c'4
402 If you need to tie a lot of notes over bars, it may be easier to use automatic
403 note splitting (see @ref{Automatic note splitting}).
408 @cindex @code{\tieUp}
410 @cindex @code{\tieDown}
412 @cindex @code{\tieBoth}
414 @cindex @code{\tieDotted}
416 @cindex @code{\tieSolid}
421 In this manual: @ref{Automatic note splitting}.
423 Internals: @internalsref{TieEvent}, @internalsref{NewTieEvent},
426 Examples: if you want less ties created for a chord, see
427 @inputfileref{input/test,tie-sparse.ly}.
429 For tying only a subset of the note heads of a pair of chords, see
430 @inputfileref{input/regression,tie-chord-partial.ly}.
435 Switching staves when a tie is active will not produce a slanted tie.
437 Formatting of ties is a difficult subject. The results are often not
447 @cindex @code{\times}
449 Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all durations
452 @cindex @code{\times}
454 \times @var{fraction} @var{musicexpr}
458 The duration of @var{musicexpr} will be multiplied by the fraction.
459 The fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes, optionally
460 with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in which 3
461 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of their written
464 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
465 g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4
468 The property @code{tupletSpannerDuration} specifies how long each
469 bracket should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while
470 typing @code{\times} only once, saving lots of typing. In the next
471 example, there are two triplets shown, while @code{\times} was only
474 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
475 \property Voice.tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
476 \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }
479 The format of the number is determined by the property
480 @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}. The default prints only the
481 denominator, but if it is set to the Scheme function
482 @code{fraction-tuplet-formatter}, @var{num}:@var{den} will be printed
486 @cindex @code{tupletNumberFormatFunction}
487 @cindex tuplet formatting
492 @cindex @code{\tupletUp}
494 @cindex @code{\tupletDown}
496 @cindex @code{\tupletBoth}
501 Internals: @internalsref{TupletBracket}, and @internalsref{TimeScaledMusic}.
503 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,tuplet-nest.ly}.
507 Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically. In this case, outer
508 tuplet brackets should be moved manually, which is demonstrated in
509 @inputfileref{input/regression,tuplet-nest.ly}.
513 @node Easier music entry
514 @section Easier music entry
517 When entering music it is easy to introduce errors. This section deals
518 with tricks and features of the input language that were added solely
519 to help entering music, and find and correct mistakes.
521 It is also possible to use external programs, for example GUI
522 interfaces, or MIDI transcription programs, to enter or edit
523 music. Refer to the website for more information. Finally, there are
524 tools make debugging easier, by linking the input file and the output
525 shown on screen. See @ref{Point and click} for more information.
532 * Skipping corrected music::
533 * Automatic note splitting::
539 @node Relative octaves
540 @subsection Relative octaves
542 @cindex relative octave specification
544 Octaves are specified by adding @code{'} and @code{,} to pitch names.
545 When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch
546 in the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. The relative
547 octave mode prevents these errors: a single error puts the rest of the
548 piece off by one octave:
550 @cindex @code{\relative}
552 \relative @var{startpitch} @var{musicexpr}
555 The octave of notes that appear in @var{musicexpr} are calculated as
556 follows: If no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval
557 between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less
558 (; this distance is determined without regarding alterations: a
559 @code{fisis} following a @code{ceses} will be put above the
562 The octave changing marks @code{'} and @code{,} can be added to raise
563 or lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode,
564 an absolute starting pitch must be specified that will act as the
565 predecessor of the first note of @var{musicexpr}.
567 Here is the relative mode shown in action:
568 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim,center]
574 Octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth:
575 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
580 If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used
581 to determine the first note of the next chord:
583 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
590 @cindex @code{\notes}
592 The pitch after the @code{\relative} contains a note name. To parse
593 the pitch as a note name, you have to be in note mode, so there must
594 be a surrounding @code{\notes} keyword (which is not
597 The relative conversion will not affect @code{\transpose},
598 @code{\chords} or @code{\relative} sections in its argument. If you
599 want to use relative within transposed music, you must place an
600 additional @code{\relative} inside the @code{\transpose}.
603 @subsection Octave check
606 Octave checks make octave errors easier to correct: a note may be
607 followed by @code{=}@var{quotes} which indicates what its absolute
608 octave should be. In the following example,
610 \relative c'' @{ c='' b=' d,='' @}
614 @c take care with @code, adds confusing quotes.
615 the d will generate a warning, because a d'' is expected, but a d' is
616 found. In the output, the octave is corrected this and the following
621 There is also a syntax that is separate from the notes.
626 This checks that @var{pitch} (without octave) yields @var{pitch} (with
627 octave) in \relative mode. If not, a warning is printed, and the
628 octave is corrected, for example, the first check is passed
629 successfully. The second check fails with an error message. The
630 octave is adjusted so the following notes are in the correct octave
641 The octave of a note following an octave check is determined with
642 respect to the note preceding it. In the next fragment, the last note
643 is a @code{a'}, above central C. Hence, the @code{\octave} check may
644 be deleted without changing the meaning of the piece.
646 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
655 @subsection Bar check
659 @cindex @code{barCheckSynchronize}
662 Bar checks help detect errors in the durations. A bar check is
663 entered using the bar symbol, `@code{|}'. Whenever it is encountered
664 during interpretation, it should fall on a measure boundary. If it
665 does not, a warning is printed. Depending on the value of
666 @code{barCheckSynchronize}, the beginning of the measure will be
669 In the next example, the second bar check will signal an error:
671 \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2 |
674 Bar checks can also be used in lyrics, for example
679 Twin -- kle | Twin -- kle
684 @cindex skipTypesetting
686 Failed bar checks are caused by entering incorrect
687 durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score,
688 especially if it is polyphonic, so you should start correcting the
689 score by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To
690 speed up this process, you can use @code{skipTypesetting}, described
693 @node Skipping corrected music
694 @subsection Skipping corrected music
696 The property @code{Score.skipTypesetting} can be used to switch on and
697 off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When
698 typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly.
699 This can be used to skip over the parts of a score that have already
700 been checked for errors:
702 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
704 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
706 \property Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
710 @node Automatic note splitting
711 @subsection Automatic note splitting
713 Long notes can be converted automatically to tied notes. This is done
714 by replacing the @internalsref{Note_heads_engraver} by the
715 @internalsref{Completion_heads_engraver}:
718 \paper @{ \translator @{
720 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
721 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
725 which will make long notes tied in the following example:
728 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
735 c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
737 \paper { \translator {
739 \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
740 \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
745 This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts
746 ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are
747 not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how much each measure
752 Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be
753 represented exactly; the engraver will not insert tuplets.
759 @section Staff notation
761 This section describes music notation that occurs on staff level,
762 such as keys, clefs and time signatures.
764 @cindex Staff notation
778 @subsection Staff symbol
780 @cindex adjusting staff symbol
781 @cindex StaffSymbol, using \property
783 Notes, dynamic signs, etc. are grouped
784 with a set of horizontal lines, into a staff (plural `staves'). In our
785 system, these lines are drawn using a separate layout object called
789 @cindex staff lines, setting number of
790 @cindex staff lines, setting thickness of
791 @cindex thickness of staff lines, setting
792 @cindex number of staff lines, setting
796 Internals: @internalsref{StaffSymbol},
798 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,staff-lines.ly},
799 @inputfileref{input/test,staff-size.ly}
803 If a staff is ended halfway a piece, the staff symbol may not end
804 exactly on the barline.
808 @subsection Key signature
809 @cindex Key signature
813 The key signature indicates the scale in which a piece is played. It
814 is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of
819 Setting or changing the key signature is done with the @code{\key}
822 @code{\key} @var{pitch} @var{type}
825 @cindex @code{\minor}
826 @cindex @code{\major}
827 @cindex @code{\minor}
828 @cindex @code{\ionian}
829 @cindex @code{\locrian}
830 @cindex @code{\aeolian}
831 @cindex @code{\mixolydian}
832 @cindex @code{\lydian}
833 @cindex @code{\phrygian}
834 @cindex @code{\dorian}
836 Here, @var{type} should be @code{\major} or @code{\minor} to get
837 @var{pitch}-major or @var{pitch}-minor, respectively.
838 The standard mode names @code{\ionian},
839 @code{\locrian}, @code{\aeolian}, @code{\mixolydian}, @code{\lydian},
840 @code{\phrygian}, and @code{\dorian} are also defined.
842 This command sets the context property
843 @internalsref{Staff}.@code{keySignature}. Non-standard key signatures
844 can be specified by setting this property directly.
846 Accidentals and key signatures often confuse new users, because
847 unaltered notes get natural signs depending on the keysignature. The
848 tutorial explains why this is so in @ref{More about pitches}.
852 The ordering of a key cancellation is wrong when it is combined with
853 repeat bar lines. The cancellation is also printed after a line break.
857 Internals: @internalsref{KeyChangeEvent}, and @internalsref{KeySignature}.
859 @cindex @code{keySignature}
866 The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which
871 The clef can be set or changed with the @code{\clef} command:
872 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
873 \key f\major c''2 \clef alto g'2
876 Supported clef-names include:
877 @c Moved standard clefs to the top /MB
881 @item treble, violin, G, G2
894 G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef
899 @cindex mezzosoprano clef
902 @cindex baritone clef
905 @cindex varbaritone clef
914 By adding @code{_8} or @code{^8} to the clef name, the clef is
915 transposed one octave down or up, respectively, and @code{_15} and
916 @code{^15} transposes by two octaves. The argument @var{clefname}
917 must be enclosed in quotes when it contains underscores or digits. For
921 @cindex choral tenor clef
922 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative]
926 This command is equivalent to setting @code{clefGlyph},
927 @code{clefPosition} (which controls the Y position of the clef),
928 @code{centralCPosition} and @code{clefOctavation}. A clef is printed
929 when any of these properties are changed.
933 Internals: the object for this symbol is @internalsref{Clef}.
937 @node Ottava brackets
938 @subsection Ottava brackets
940 ``Ottava'' brackets introduce an extra transposition of an octave for
941 the staff. They are created by invoking the function
942 @code{set-octavation}:
948 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
957 The @code{set-octavation} function also takes -1 (for 8va bassa) and 2
958 (for 15ma) as arguments. Internally the function sets the properties
959 @code{ottavation} (eg. to @code{"8va"}) and
960 @code{centralCPosition}. For overriding the text of the bracket, set
961 @code{ottavation} after invoking @code{set-octavation}, i.e.,
965 \property Staff.ottavation = #"8"
970 Internals: @internalsref{OttavaBracket}.
972 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,ottava.ly},
973 @inputfileref{input/regression,ottava-broken.ly}.
977 @code{set-octavation} will get confused when clef changes happen
978 during an octavation bracket.
981 @subsection Time signature
982 @cindex Time signature
986 Time signature indicates the metrum of a piece: a regular pattern of
987 strong and weak beats. It is denoted by a fraction at the start of the
992 The time signature is set or changed by the @code{\time}
994 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
995 \time 2/4 c'2 \time 3/4 c'2.
998 The symbol that is printed can be customized with the @code{style}
999 property. Setting it to @code{#'()} uses fraction style for 4/4 and
1000 2/2 time. There are many more options for its layout. See
1001 @inputfileref{input/test,time.ly} for more examples.
1004 This command sets the property @code{timeSignatureFraction},
1005 @code{beatLength} and @code{measureLength} in the @code{Timing}
1006 context, which is normally aliased to @internalsref{Score}. The
1007 property @code{measureLength} determines where bar lines should be
1008 inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated. Changing the
1009 value of @code{timeSignatureFraction} also causes the symbol to be
1012 More options are available through the Scheme function
1013 @code{set-time-signature}. In combination with the
1014 @internalsref{Measure_grouping_engraver}, it will create
1015 @internalsref{MeasureGrouping} signs. Such signs ease reading
1016 rhythmically complex modern music. In the following example, the 9/8
1017 measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to
1018 @code{set-time-signature} as the third argument @code{(2 2 2 3)}:
1021 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
1022 #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3))
1023 g8[ g] d[ d] g[ g] a8[( bes g]) |
1024 #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2))
1029 \translator { \StaffContext
1030 \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
1036 Internals: @internalsref{TimeSignature}, and @internalsref{Timing_engraver}.
1041 Automatic beaming does not use measure grouping specified with
1042 @code{set-time-signature}.
1044 @node Partial measures
1045 @subsection Partial measures
1048 @cindex partial measure
1049 @cindex measure, partial
1050 @cindex shorten measures
1051 @cindex @code{\partial}
1053 Partial measures, for example in upsteps, are entered using the
1054 @code{\partial} command:
1055 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative 1]
1056 \partial 16*5 c16 cis d dis e | a2. c,4 | b2
1059 The syntax for this command is
1061 \partial @var{duration}
1063 This is internally translated into
1065 \property Timing.measurePosition = -@var{length of duration}
1068 The property @code{measurePosition} contains a rational number
1069 indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.
1071 @node Unmetered music
1072 @subsection Unmetered music
1074 Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered
1075 music (e.g. cadenzas), this is not desirable. By setting
1076 @code{Score.timing} to false, this automatic timing can be switched
1082 @cindex @code{\cadenzaOn}
1084 @cindex @code{\cadenzaOff}
1088 @subsection Bar lines
1092 @cindex measure lines
1096 Bar lines delimit measures, but are also used to indicate repeats.
1097 Normally, they are inserted automatically. Line breaks may only
1103 of barlines can be forced with the @code{\bar} command:
1105 @lilypond[relative=1,fragment,verbatim]
1109 The following bar types are available:
1110 @lilypond[fragment, relative, singleline, verbatim]
1123 For allowing linebreaks, there is a special command,
1127 This will insert an invisible barline, and allow linebreaks at this
1130 In scores with many staves, a @code{\bar} command in one staff is
1131 automatically applied to all staves. The resulting bar lines are
1132 connected between different staves of a @internalsref{StaffGroup}:
1134 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
1135 << \context StaffGroup <<
1139 \new Staff { \clef bass c4 g e g } >>
1140 \new Staff { \clef bass c2 c2 } >>
1144 The command @code{\bar @var{bartype}} is a short cut for doing
1145 @code{\property Score.whichBar = @var{bartype}} Whenever
1146 @code{whichBar} is set to a string, a bar line of that type is
1147 created. At the start of a measure it is set to
1148 @code{defaultBarType}. The contents of @code{repeatCommands} are used
1149 to override default measure bars.
1151 Property @code{whichBar} can also be set directly, using @code{\property}
1152 or @code{\bar}. These settings take precedence over the automatic
1153 @code{whichBar} settings.
1156 @cindex repeatCommands
1157 @cindex defaultBarType
1159 You are encouraged to use @code{\repeat} for repetitions. See
1166 In this manual: @ref{Repeats}.
1169 Internals: the bar line objects that are created at
1170 @internalsref{Staff} level are called @internalsref{BarLine}, the bar
1171 lines that span staves are @internalsref{SpanBar}s.
1173 @cindex bar lines at start of system
1174 @cindex start of system
1176 The barlines at the start of each system are
1177 @internalsref{SystemStartBar}, @internalsref{SystemStartBrace}, and
1178 @internalsref{SystemStartBracket}. Only one of these types is created
1179 in every context, and that type is determined by the property
1180 @code{systemStartDelimiter}.
1182 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,bar-lines.ly},
1188 The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff
1189 is to split chords using the separator @code{\\}. You can use it for
1190 small, short-lived voices or for single chords:
1192 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
1193 \context Staff \relative c'' {
1194 c4 << { f d e } \\ { b c2 } >>
1195 c4 << g' \\ b, \\ f' \\ d >>
1199 The separator causes @internalsref{Voice} contexts@footnote{Polyphonic
1200 voices are sometimes called "layers" other notation packages}
1202 to be instantiated. They bear the names @code{"1"}, @code{"2"}, etc. In
1203 each of these contexts, vertical direction of slurs, stems, etc. is set
1206 @cindex @code{\voiceOne}
1207 @cindex @code{\voiceFour}
1209 This can also be done by instantiating @internalsref{Voice} contexts
1210 by hand, and using @code{\voiceOne}, up to @code{\voiceFour} to assign
1211 a stem directions and horizontal shift for each part:
1214 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
1216 \context Staff << \new Voice { \voiceOne cis2 b }
1217 \new Voice { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
1218 \new Voice { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >>
1222 The command @code{\oneVoice} will revert back to the normal setting.
1223 @cindex @code{\oneVoice}
1226 Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but
1227 when the object property @code{merge-differently-dotted} is set in
1228 the @internalsref{NoteCollision} object, they are merged:
1229 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline]
1230 \relative c'' \context Voice << {
1232 \property Staff.NoteCollision \override
1233 #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
1235 } \\ { g8.[ f16] g8.[ f16] }
1239 Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting
1240 @code{merge-differently-headed}:
1241 @lilypond[fragment, relative=2,verbatim]
1244 \property Staff.NoteCollision
1245 \override #'merge-differently-headed = ##t
1246 c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >>
1249 LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem:
1252 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1253 \context Voice << c''4 \\ r4 >>
1261 @cindex @code{\oneVoice}
1263 @cindex @code{\voiceOne}
1265 @cindex @code{\voiceTwo}
1267 @cindex @code{\voiceThree}
1269 @cindex @code{\voiceFour}
1273 The following commands specify in what chords of the current voice
1274 should be shifted: the outer voice has @code{\shiftOff}, and the inner
1275 voices have @code{\shiftOn}, @code{\shiftOnn}, etc.
1278 @cindex @code{\shiftOn}
1280 @cindex @code{\shiftOnn}
1282 @cindex @code{\shiftOnnn}
1284 @cindex @code{\shiftOff}
1291 Internals: the objects responsible for resolving collisions are
1292 @internalsref{NoteCollision} and @internalsref{RestCollision}.
1294 Examples: See also example files
1295 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-dots.ly},
1296 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-head-chords.ly},
1297 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-heads.ly},
1298 @inputfileref{input/regression,collision-mesh.ly}, and
1299 @inputfileref{input/regression,collisions.ly}.
1304 Resolving collisions is a intricate subject, and only a few situations
1305 are handled. When LilyPond cannot cope, the @code{force-hshift}
1306 property of the @internalsref{NoteColumn} object and pitched rests can
1307 be used to override typesetting decisions.
1309 When using @code{merge-differently-headed} with an upstem 8th or a shorter
1310 note, and a downstem half note, the 8th note gets the wrong offset.
1312 There is no support for clusters where the same note occurs with
1313 different accidentals in the same chord. In this case, it is
1314 recommended to use enharmonic transcription, or to use special cluster
1315 notation (see @ref{Clusters}).
1320 Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with
1321 the metrum. They are inserted automatically in most cases:
1323 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
1324 \time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8
1327 When these automatic decisions are not good enough, beaming can be
1328 entered explicitly. It is also possible to define beaming patterns
1329 that differ from the defaults.
1333 Internals: @internalsref{Beam}.
1336 @cindex Automatic beams
1339 * Setting automatic beam behavior::
1343 @subsection Manual beams
1344 @cindex beams, manual
1348 In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming
1349 algorithm. For example, the auto beamer will not put beams over rests
1350 or bar lines. Such beams are specified by manually: the begin and end
1351 point are marked with @code{[} and @code{]}:
1353 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1355 r4 r8[ g' a r8] r8 g[ | a] r8
1359 @cindex @code{stemLeftBeamCount}
1361 Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically.
1362 When this mechanism fouls up, the properties
1363 @code{Voice.stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{Voice.stemRightBeamCount} can
1364 be used to control the beam subdivision on a stem. If either property
1365 is set, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased.
1367 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1370 f8[ r16 \property Voice.stemLeftBeamCount = #1 f g a]
1373 @cindex @code{stemRightBeamCount}
1376 The property @code{subdivideBeams} can be set in order to subdivide
1377 all 16th or shorter beams at beat positions, as defined by the
1378 @code{beatLength} property . This accomplishes the same effect as
1379 twiddling with @code{stemLeftBeamCount} and @code{stemRightBeamCount},
1380 but it take less typing:
1383 @lilypond[relative=1,verbatim,noindent]
1385 \property Voice.subdivideBeams = ##t
1387 \property Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
1390 @cindex subdivideBeams
1392 Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap is detected
1393 between the note heads. This behavior can be tuned through the object
1394 property @code{auto-knee-gap}.
1396 Normally, line breaks are forbidden when beams cross bar lines. This
1397 behavior can be changed by setting @code{allowBeamBreak}.
1399 @cindex @code{allowBeamBreak}
1400 @cindex beams and line breaks
1402 @cindex beams, kneed
1404 @cindex auto-knee-gap
1410 @cindex Frenched staves
1412 Automatically kneed beams cannot be used together with hidden staves.
1417 @node Setting automatic beam behavior
1418 @subsection Setting automatic beam behavior
1420 @cindex @code{autoBeamSettings}
1421 @cindex @code{(end * * * *)}
1422 @cindex @code{(begin * * * *)}
1423 @cindex automatic beams, tuning
1424 @cindex tuning automatic beaming
1426 @c [TODO: use \applycontext]
1428 In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can
1429 only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat,
1430 or at durations specified by the properties in
1431 @code{Voice.autoBeamSettings}. The defaults for @code{autoBeamSettings}
1432 are defined in @file{scm/auto-beam.scm}.
1434 The value of @code{autoBeamSettings} is changed using
1435 @code{\override} and restored with @code{\revert}:
1437 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M}) = @var{dur}
1438 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \revert #'(@var{BE} @var{P} @var{Q} @var{N} @var{M})
1440 Here, @var{BE} is the symbol @code{begin} or @code{end}. It determines
1441 whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity
1442 @var{P}/@var{Q} refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `@code{*
1443 *}' designates notes of any length), @var{N}/@var{M} refers to a time
1444 signature (wildcards `@code{* *}' may be entered to designate all time
1447 For example, if automatic beams should end on every quarter note, use
1450 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1451 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
1453 Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is
1454 entered as @code{(ly:make-moment 1 4)}.
1456 The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this
1457 example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note:
1459 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1460 #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1462 In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on
1463 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times
1464 3/8, has passed within the measure).
1466 Rules can also be restricted to specific time signatures. A rule that
1467 should only be applied in @var{N}/@var{M} time signature is formed by
1468 replacing the second asterisks by @var{N} and @var{M}. For example, a
1469 rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like
1471 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings \override
1472 #'(begin * * 6 8) = ...
1475 If a rule should be to applied only to certain types of beams, use the
1476 first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the
1477 shortest note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies
1478 to beams with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), use @code{(end 1 32 *
1481 If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still
1482 accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all.
1484 @cindex automatic beam generation
1486 @cindex @code{Voice.autoBeaming}
1489 For melodies that have lyrics, you may want to switch off
1490 automatic beaming. This is done by setting @code{Voice.autoBeaming} to
1495 @cindex @code{\autoBeamOff}
1496 @code{\autoBeamOff},
1497 @cindex @code{\autoBeamOn}
1503 The rules for ending a beam depend on the shortest note in a beam.
1504 So, while it is possible to have different ending rules for eight
1505 beams and sixteenth beams, a beam that contains both eight and
1506 sixteenth notes will use the rules for the sixteenth beam.
1508 In the example below, the autobeamer makes eight beams and sixteenth
1509 end at 3 eights; the third beam can only be corrected by specifying
1512 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,relative,noverbatim,quote]
1513 \property Voice.autoBeamSettings
1514 \override #'(end * * * *) = #(ly:make-moment 3 8)
1515 % rather show case where it goes wrong
1516 %\time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c[ c c c] c8[ c] c4
1517 \time 12/8 c'8 c c c16 c c c c c c c c c c8 c c4
1519 It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in
1520 different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use
1521 automatic beaming in irregular meters such as @code{5/8}.
1524 @section Accidentals
1527 This section describes how to change the way that accidentals are
1528 inserted automatically before the running notes.
1532 * Using the predefined accidental variables::
1533 * Customized accidental rules::
1536 @node Using the predefined accidental variables
1537 @subsection Using the predefined accidental variables
1539 The constructs for describing the accidental typesetting rules are
1540 quite hairy, so non-experts should stick to the variables
1541 defined in @file{ly/property-init.ly}.
1542 @cindex @file{property-init.ly}
1544 The variables set properties in the ``@code{Current}'' context (see
1545 @ref{Context properties}). This means that the variables should
1546 normally be added right after the creation of the context in which the
1547 accidental typesetting described by the variable is to take
1548 effect. For example, if you want to use piano-accidentals in a piano
1549 staff then issue @code{\pianoAccidentals} first thing after the
1550 creation of the piano staff:
1553 \notes \relative c'' <<
1554 \new Staff @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1555 \context GrandStaff <<
1557 \new Staff @{ cis4 d e2 @}
1558 \new Staff @{ es2 c @}
1560 \new Staff @{ es2 c @}
1564 @lilypond[singleline]
1566 \notes \relative c'' <<
1567 \new Staff { cis4 d e2 }
1568 \context GrandStaff <<
1570 \new Staff { cis4 d e2 }
1571 \new Staff { es2 c }
1573 \new Staff { es2 c }
1578 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 4.0)
1586 @item \defaultAccidentals
1587 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1588 This is the default typesetting behaviour. It should correspond
1589 to 18th century common practice: Accidentals are
1590 remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and
1591 only on their own octave.
1593 @item \voiceAccidentals
1594 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1596 The normal behaviour is to
1597 remember the accidentals on Staff-level. This variable, however,
1598 typesets accidentals individually for each voice. Apart from that the
1599 rule is similar to @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1601 This leads to some weird and often unwanted results
1602 because accidentals from one voice do not get cancelled in other
1604 @lilypond[singleline,relative,fragment,verbatim,quote]
1612 Hence you should only use @code{\voiceAccidentals} if the voices
1613 are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff is to be
1614 used by one musician (e.g. a conductor) then you use
1615 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals} or @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1618 @item \modernAccidentals
1619 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1620 This rule corresponds to the common practice in the 20th
1622 The rule is more complex than @code{\defaultAccidentals}.
1623 You get all the same accidentals, but temporary
1624 accidentals also get cancelled in other octaves. Furthermore,
1625 in the same octave, they also get cancelled in the following measure:
1626 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1628 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1631 @item \modernCautionaries
1632 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1633 This rule is similar to @code{\modernAccidentals}, but the
1634 ``extra'' accidentals (the ones not typeset by
1635 @code{\defaultAccidentals}) are typeset as cautionary accidentals.
1636 They are printed in reduced size or with parentheses:
1637 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1639 cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
1642 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1643 @item \modernVoiceAccidentals
1644 is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians
1645 playing one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are
1646 typeset for each voice, but they @emph{are} cancelled across voices in
1647 the same @internalsref{Staff}.
1649 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1650 @item \modernVoiceCautionaries
1651 is the same as @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}, but with the extra
1652 accidentals (the ones not typeset by @code{\voiceAccidentals}) typeset
1653 as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset by
1654 @code{\defaultAccidentals} @emph{are} typeset by this variable then
1655 some of them are typeset as cautionaries.
1657 @item \pianoAccidentals
1658 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1659 20th century practice for piano notation. Very similar to
1660 @code{\modernAccidentals} but accidentals also get cancelled
1661 across the staves in the same @internalsref{GrandStaff} or
1662 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.
1664 @item \pianoCautionaries
1665 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1666 As @code{\pianoAccidentals} but with the extra accidentals
1667 typeset as cautionaries.
1670 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1671 Same as @code{\defaultAccidentals} but with accidentals lasting
1672 ``forever'' and not only until the next measure:
1673 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1678 @item \forgetAccidentals
1679 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1680 This is sort of the opposite of @code{\noResetKey}: Accidentals
1681 are not remembered at all---and hence all accidentals are
1682 typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what was
1683 before in the music:
1684 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim,relative]
1686 \key d\major c4 c cis cis d d dis dis
1690 @node Customized accidental rules
1691 @subsection Customized accidental rules
1693 For determining when to print an accidental, several different rules
1694 are tried. The rule that gives the highest number of accidentals is
1695 used. Each rule consists of
1698 In which context is the rule applied. For example, if
1699 @var{context} is @internalsref{Score} then all staves share
1700 accidentals, and if @var{context} is @internalsref{Staff} then all
1701 voices in the same staff share accidentals, but staves do not.
1703 Whether the accidental changes all octaves or only the current
1706 Over how many barlines the accidental lasts.
1707 If @var{lazyness} is @code{-1} then the accidental is forget
1708 immediately, and if @var{lazyness} is @code{#t} then the accidental
1711 @c [TODO: should use +infinity for this case?]
1717 @cindex @code{\defaultAccidentals}
1718 @code{\defaultAccidentals},
1719 @cindex @code{\voiceAccidentals}
1720 @code{\voiceAccidentals},
1721 @cindex @code{\modernAccidentals}
1722 @code{\modernAccidentals},
1723 @cindex @code{\modernCautionaries}
1724 @code{\modernCautionaries},
1725 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals}
1726 @code{\modernVoiceAccidentals},
1727 @cindex @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries}
1728 @code{\modernVoiceCautionaries},
1729 @cindex @code{\pianoAccidentals}
1730 @code{\pianoAccidentals},
1731 @cindex @code{\pianoCautionaries}
1732 @code{\pianoCautionaries},
1733 @cindex @code{\noResetKey}
1735 @cindex @code{\forgetAccidentals}
1736 @code{\forgetAccidentals}.
1740 Internals: @internalsref{Accidental_engraver},
1741 @internalsref{Accidental}, and @internalsref{AccidentalPlacement}.
1746 Currently the simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in
1747 sequential mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are
1748 typeset as if the notes in the chord happened once at a time - in the
1749 order in which they appear in the input file.
1751 This is only a problem when there are simultaneous notes whose
1752 accidentals depend on each other. The problem only occurs when using
1753 non-default accidentals. In the default scheme, accidentals only
1754 depend on other accidentals with the same pitch on the same staff, so
1755 no conflicts possible.
1757 This example shows two examples of the same music giving different
1758 accidentals depending on the order in which the notes occur in the
1761 @lilypond[singleline,fragment,verbatim]
1762 \property Staff.autoAccidentals = #'( Staff (any-octave . 0) )
1763 cis'4 <c'' c'> r2 | cis'4 <c' c''> r2
1764 | <cis' c''> r | <c'' cis'> r |
1767 This problem can be solved by manually inserting @code{!} and @code{?}
1768 for the problematic notes.
1770 @node Expressive marks
1771 @section Expressive marks
1774 @c todo: should change ordering
1775 @c where to put text spanners, metronome marks,
1784 * Analysis brackets::
1786 * Fingering instructions::
1797 A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or @emph{legato}.
1801 They are entered using parentheses:
1802 @lilypond[relative 1,fragment,verbatim,center]
1803 f( g)( a) a8 b( a4 g2 f4)
1808 @c TODO: should explain that ^( and _( set directions
1809 @c should set attachments with ^ and _ ?
1811 Slurs avoid crossing stems, and are generally attached to note heads.
1812 However, in some situations with beams, slurs may be attached to stem
1813 ends. If you want to override this layout you can do this through the
1814 object property @code{attachment} of @internalsref{Slur} in
1815 @internalsref{Voice} context. Its value is a pair of symbols, specifying
1816 the attachment type of the left and right end points:
1818 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1820 \property Voice.Stem \set #'length = #5.5
1822 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1826 If a slur would strike through a stem or beam, the slur will be moved
1827 away upward or downward. If this happens, attaching the slur to the
1828 stems might look better:
1830 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1833 \property Voice.Slur \set #'attachment = #'(stem . stem)
1840 @cindex @code{\slurUp}
1842 @cindex @code{\slurDown}
1844 @cindex @code{\slurBoth}
1846 @cindex @code{\slurDotted}
1848 @cindex @code{\slurSolid}
1853 Internals: @seeinternals{Slur}, and @internalsref{SlurEvent}.
1858 Producing nice slurs is a difficult problem, and LilyPond currently
1859 uses a simple, empiric method to produce slurs. In some cases, its
1863 @cindex Adjusting slurs
1865 @node Phrasing slurs
1866 @subsection Phrasing slurs
1868 @cindex phrasing slurs
1869 @cindex phrasing marks
1871 A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to
1872 indicate a musical sentence. It is started using @code{\(} and @code{\)}
1875 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,relative]
1876 \time 6/4 c'\( d( e) f( e) d\)
1879 Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a
1880 normal slur. However, they are treated as different objects. A
1881 @code{\slurUp} will have no effect on a phrasing slur; instead, you
1882 should use @code{\phrasingSlurUp}, @code{\phrasingSlurDown}, and
1883 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}.
1885 The commands @code{\slurUp}, @code{\slurDown}, and @code{\slurBoth}
1886 will only affect normal slurs and not phrasing slurs.
1890 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurUp}
1891 @code{\phrasingSlurUp},
1892 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurDown}
1893 @code{\phrasingSlurDown},
1894 @cindex @code{\phrasingSlurBoth}
1895 @code{\phrasingSlurBoth},
1899 Internals: see also @internalsref{PhrasingSlur}, and
1900 @internalsref{PhrasingSlurEvent}.
1904 Phrasing slurs have the same limitations in their formatting as normal
1905 slurs. Putting phrasing slurs over rests leads to spurious warnings.
1908 @subsection Breath marks
1910 Breath marks are entered using @code{\breathe}:
1913 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1917 The glyph of the breath mark can be tweaked by overriding the
1918 @code{text} property of the @code{BreathingSign} layout object with
1919 any markup text. For example,
1920 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative]
1922 \property Voice.BreathingSign \override #'text
1923 = #(make-musicglyph-markup "scripts-rvarcomma")
1930 Internals: @internalsref{BreathingSign},
1931 @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent}
1933 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,breathing-sign.ly}.
1936 @node Metronome marks
1937 @subsection Metronome marks
1940 @cindex beats per minute
1941 @cindex metronome marking
1943 Metronome settings can be entered as follows:
1945 \tempo @var{duration} = @var{perminute}
1948 In the MIDI output, they are interpreted as a tempo change, and in the
1949 paper output, a metronome marking is printed:
1950 @cindex @code{\tempo}
1951 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
1957 Internals: @internalsref{MetronomeChangeEvent}.
1962 @subsection Text spanners
1963 @cindex Text spanners
1965 Some performance indications, e.g. @i{rallentando} or @i{accelerando},
1966 are written as texts, and extended over many measures with dotted
1967 lines. You can create such texts using text spanners: attach
1968 @code{\startTextSpan} and @code{\stopTextSpan} to the
1969 start and ending note of the spanner.
1971 The string to be printed, as well as the style, is set through object
1974 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
1976 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'direction = #-1
1977 \property Voice.TextSpanner \set #'edge-text = #'("rall " . "")
1978 c2\startTextSpan b c\stopTextSpan a }
1984 Internals @internalsref{TextSpanEvent},
1985 @internalsref{TextSpanner}.
1987 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,text-spanner.ly}.
1990 @node Analysis brackets
1991 @subsection Analysis brackets
1993 @cindex phrasing brackets
1994 @cindex musicological analysis
1995 @cindex note grouping bracket
1997 Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical
1998 pieces. LilyPond supports a simple form of nested horizontal brackets.
1999 To use this, add the @internalsref{Horizontal_bracket_engraver} to
2000 @internalsref{Staff} context. A bracket is started with
2001 @code{\startGroup} and closed with @code{\stopGroup}:
2003 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
2004 \score { \notes \relative c'' {
2005 c4\startGroup\startGroup
2008 c4\stopGroup\stopGroup
2010 \paper { \translator {
2011 \StaffContext \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
2017 Internals: @internalsref{HorizontalBracket},
2018 @internalsref{NoteGroupingEvent}
2020 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,note-group-bracket.ly}.
2024 @subsection Articulations
2025 @cindex Articulations
2027 @cindex articulations
2031 A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate
2032 different characteristics of the performance. They are added to a note
2033 by adding a dash and the character signifying the
2034 articulation. They are demonstrated here:
2036 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-abbreviations.ly}
2038 The meanings of these shorthands can be changed: see
2039 @file{ly/script-init.ly} for examples.
2042 The script is automatically placed, but if you need to force
2043 directions, you can use @code{_} to force them down, or @code{^} to
2045 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim]
2049 Other symbols can be added using the syntax
2050 @var{note}@code{\}@var{name}, e.g. @code{c4\fermata}. Again, they
2051 can be forced up or down using @code{^} and @code{_},
2054 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative 2]
2055 c\fermata c^\fermata c_\fermata
2062 @cindex staccatissimo
2071 @cindex organ pedal marks
2080 @cindex prallmordent
2084 @cindex thumb marking
2089 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{script-chart.ly}
2094 @cindex @code{\scriptUp}
2096 @cindex @code{\scriptDown}
2098 @cindex @code{\scriptBoth}
2103 Internals: @internalsref{ScriptEvent}, and @internalsref{Script}.
2107 These note ornaments appear in the printed output but have no
2108 effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.
2111 @node Fingering instructions
2112 @subsection Fingering instructions
2116 Fingering instructions can be entered using
2118 @var{note}-@var{digit}
2120 For finger changes, use markup texts:
2122 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
2123 c'4-1 c'4-2 c'4-3 c'4-4
2124 c'^\markup { \fontsize #-3 \number "2-3" }
2127 @cindex finger change
2132 You can use the thumb-script to indicate that a note should be
2133 played with the thumb (e.g. in cello music):
2135 @lilypond[verbatim, singleline, fragment]
2136 <a' a''-3>8(_\thumb <b' b''-3>)_\thumb
2137 <c'' c'''-3>(_\thumb <d'' d'''-3>)_\thumb
2140 Fingerings for chords can also be added to individual notes
2141 of the chord by adding them after the pitches:
2142 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
2143 < c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 > 4
2147 In this case, setting @code{fingeringOrientations} will put fingerings next
2150 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative=1]
2151 \property Voice.fingeringOrientations = #'(left down)
2152 <c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 > 4
2153 \property Voice.fingeringOrientations = #'(up right down)
2154 <c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 > 4
2157 By using single note chords, fingering instructions can be put close
2158 to note heads in monophonic music.
2162 Internals: @internalsref{FingerEvent}, and @internalsref{Fingering}.
2164 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,finger-chords.ly}
2167 @subsection Text scripts
2168 @cindex Text scripts
2170 @cindex text items, non-empty
2171 @cindex non-empty texts
2173 It is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup text (see
2174 @ref{Text markup}) above or below notes by using a string:
2175 @code{c^"text"}. By default, these indications do not influence the
2176 note spacing, but by using the command @code{\fatText}, the widths
2177 will be taken into account:
2179 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim] \relative c' {
2180 c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4 }
2183 It is possible to use @TeX{} commands in the strings, but this should
2184 be avoided because the exact dimensions of the string can then no
2189 @refcommand{fatText}, @refcommand{emptyText}.
2194 In this manual: @ref{Text markup}.
2196 Internals: @internalsref{TextScriptEvent}, @internalsref{TextScript}
2202 @subsection Grace notes
2205 @c should have blurb about accaciatura / appogiatura
2207 @cindex @code{\grace}
2211 Grace notes are ornaments that are written out. The most common ones
2212 are acciaccatura, which should be played as very short. It is denoted
2213 by a slurred small note with a slashed stem. The appoggiatura is a
2214 grace note that takes a fixed fraction of the main note, is and
2215 denoted as a slurred note in small print without a slash.
2216 They are entered with the commands @code{\acciaccatura} and
2217 @code{\appoggiatura}, as demonstrated in the following example:
2220 @cindex appoggiatura
2221 @cindex acciaccatura
2223 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2224 b4 \acciaccatura d8 c4 \appoggiatura e8 d4
2225 \acciaccatura { g16[ f] } e4
2228 Both are special forms of the @code{\grace} command. By prefixing this
2229 keyword to a music expression, a new one is formed, which will be
2230 printed in a smaller font and takes up no logical time in a measure.
2231 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2233 \grace { c16[ d16] } c2 c4
2237 Unlike @code{\acciaccatura} and @code{\appoggiatura}, the
2238 @code{\grace} command does not start a slur.
2240 Internally, timing for grace notes is done using a second, `grace'
2241 time. Every point in time consists of two rational numbers: one
2242 denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing. The above
2243 example is shown here with timing tuples:
2245 @lilypond[singleline]
2248 c4 \grace c16 c4 \grace {
2251 \new Lyrics \lyrics {
2254 ( \fraction 1 4 , \fraction -1 16 ) } 16 }
2255 \markup { (\fraction 1 4 , 0 ) } 4
2257 \markup { (\fraction 2 4 , \fraction "-1" 8 ) } 16
2258 \markup { (\fraction 2 4 , \fraction "-1" 16 ) } 16
2260 \markup { ( \fraction 2 4 , 0 ) }
2265 The placement of grace notes is synchronized between different staves.
2266 In the following example, there are two sixteenth graces notes for
2267 every eighth grace note:
2269 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2270 << \new Staff { e4 \grace { c16[ d e f] } e4 }
2271 \new Staff { c'4 \grace { g8[ b] } c4 } >>
2276 If you want to end a note with a grace, then the standard trick
2277 is to put the grace notes after a ``space note'', e.g.
2278 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim, relative=2]
2281 { s2 \grace { c16[ d] } } >>
2287 By adjusting the duration of the skip note (here it is a half-note),
2288 the space between the main-note and the grace is adjusted.
2291 A @code{\grace} section will introduce special typesetting settings,
2292 for example, to produce smaller type, and set directions. Hence, when
2293 introducing layout tweaks, they should be inside the grace section,
2295 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative 1]
2298 \property Voice.Stem \override #'direction = #-1
2300 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'direction
2307 The overrides should also be reverted inside the grace section.
2309 If the layout of grace sections must be changed throughout the music,
2310 then this can be accomplished through the function
2311 @code{add-grace-property}. The following example
2312 undefines the Stem direction grace section, so stems do not always
2317 #(add-grace-property "Voice" Stem direction '())
2323 Another option is to change the variables @code{startGraceMusic},
2324 @code{stopGraceMusic}, @code{startAccacciaturaMusic},
2325 @code{stopAccacciaturaMusic}, @code{startAppoggiaturaMusic},
2326 @code{stopAppoggiaturaMstuic}. More information is in the file
2327 @file{ly/grace-init.ly}
2332 Internals: @internalsref{GraceMusic}.
2336 A score that starts with an @code{\grace} section needs an explicit
2337 @code{\context Voice} declaration, otherwise the main note and grace
2338 note end up on different staves.
2340 Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation,
2341 such as key signatures, barlines, etc. are also synchronized. Take
2342 care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without, for example,
2344 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim,fragment]
2345 << \new Staff { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
2346 \new Staff { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >>
2349 Grace sections should only be used within sequential music
2350 expressions. Nesting or juxtaposing grace sections is not supported,
2351 and might produce crashes or other errors.
2355 @subsection Glissando
2358 @cindex @code{\glissando}
2360 A glissando is a smooth change in pitch. It is denoted by a line or a
2361 wavy line between two notes.
2365 A glissando line can be requested by attaching a @code{\glissando} to
2368 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2374 Internals: @internalsref{Glissando}, and @internalsref{GlissandoEvent}.
2379 Adding additional texts (such as @emph{gliss.}) is not supported.
2383 @subsection Dynamics
2396 @cindex @code{\ffff}
2406 Absolute dynamic marks are specified using an variable after a
2407 note: @code{c4\ff}. The available dynamic marks are @code{\ppp},
2408 @code{\pp}, @code{\p}, @code{\mp}, @code{\mf}, @code{\f}, @code{\ff},
2409 @code{\fff}, @code{\fff}, @code{\fp}, @code{\sf}, @code{\sff},
2410 @code{\sp}, @code{\spp}, @code{\sfz}, and @code{\rfz}:
2412 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment,relative]
2413 c'\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
2419 @cindex @code{\decr}
2420 @cindex @code{\rced}
2427 A crescendo mark is started with @code{\<} and terminated with
2428 @code{\!}. A decrescendo is started with @code{\>} and also terminated
2429 with @code{\!}. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you must
2430 use spacer notes if multiple marks during one note are needed:
2432 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center,quote]
2433 c''\< c''\! d''\decr e''\rced
2434 << f''1 { s4 s4\< s4\! \> s4\! } >>
2436 This may give rise to very short hairpins. Use @code{minimum-length}
2437 in @internalsref{Voice}.@internalsref{Hairpin} to lengthen them, for
2441 \property Staff.Hairpin \override #'minimum-length = #5
2444 You can also use a text saying @emph{cresc.} instead of hairpins. Here
2445 is an example how to do it:
2447 @lilypond[fragment,relative=2,verbatim]
2448 c4 \cresc c4 c c c \endcresc c4
2454 You can also supply your own texts:
2455 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2457 \property Voice.crescendoText = \markup { \italic "cresc. poco" }
2458 \property Voice.crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
2468 @cindex @code{\dynamicUp}
2470 @cindex @code{\dynamicDown}
2471 @code{\dynamicDown},
2472 @cindex @code{\dynamicBoth}
2473 @code{\dynamicBoth}.
2475 @cindex direction, of dynamics
2479 Internals: @internalsref{CrescendoEvent}, @internalsref{DecrescendoEvent}, and
2480 @internalsref{AbsoluteDynamicEvent}.
2482 Dynamics are objects of @internalsref{DynamicText} and
2483 @internalsref{Hairpin}. Vertical positioning of these symbols is
2484 handled by the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2486 If you want to adjust padding or vertical direction of the dynamics, you
2487 must set properties for the @internalsref{DynamicLineSpanner} object.
2495 @cindex @code{\repeat}
2498 Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist
2499 for repetitions. In LilyPond, most of these notations can be captured
2500 in a uniform syntax. One of the advantages is that they can be
2501 rendered in MIDI accurately.
2503 The following types of repetition are supported:
2507 Repeated music is fully written (played) out. Useful for MIDI
2508 output, and entering repetitive music.
2511 This is the normal notation: Repeats are not written out, but
2512 alternative endings (voltas) are printed, left to right.
2516 Alternative endings are written stacked. This has limited use but may be
2517 used to typeset two lines of lyrics in songs with repeats, see
2518 @inputfileref{input,star-spangled-banner.ly}.
2526 Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs.
2532 * Repeats and MIDI::
2533 * Manual repeat commands::
2535 * Tremolo subdivisions::
2540 @subsection Repeat syntax
2544 LilyPond has one syntactic construct for specifying different types of
2545 repeats. The syntax is
2548 \repeat @var{variant} @var{repeatcount} @var{repeatbody}
2551 If you have alternative endings, you may add
2552 @cindex @code{\alternative}
2554 \alternative @code{@{} @var{alternative1}
2556 @var{alternative3} @dots{} @code{@}}
2558 where each @var{alternative} is a music expression. If you do not
2559 give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, then the first
2560 alternative is assumed to be played more than once.
2562 Normal notation repeats are used like this:
2563 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative 1]
2565 \repeat volta 2 { c4 d e f }
2566 \repeat volta 2 { f e d c }
2569 With alternative endings:
2570 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative 1]
2572 \repeat volta 2 {c4 d e f}
2573 \alternative { {d2 d} {f f,} }
2577 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative 1]
2580 \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
2581 \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
2587 If you do a nested repeat like
2596 then it is ambiguous to which @code{\repeat} the @code{\alternative}
2597 belongs. This ambiguity is resolved by always having the
2598 @code{\alternative} belong to the inner @code{\repeat}. For clarity,
2599 it is advisable to use braces in such situations.
2602 @node Repeats and MIDI
2603 @subsection Repeats and MIDI
2605 @cindex expanding repeats
2607 For instructions on how to unfold repeats for MIDI output, see the
2608 example file @inputfileref{input/test,unfold-all-repeats.ly}.
2613 Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative,
2614 so after a repeat timing information must be reset by hand, for
2615 example by setting @code{Score.measurePosition} or entering
2616 @code{\partial}. Similarly, slurs or ties are also not repeated.
2619 @node Manual repeat commands
2620 @subsection Manual repeat commands
2622 @cindex @code{repeatCommands}
2624 The property @code{repeatCommands} can be used to control the layout of
2625 repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands, where each repeat
2629 @item the symbol @code{start-repeat},
2630 which prints a @code{|:} bar line,
2631 @item the symbol @code{end-repeat},
2632 which prints a @code{:|} bar line,
2633 @item the list @code{(volta @var{text})},
2634 which prints a volta bracket saying @var{text}: The text can be specified as
2635 a text string or as a markup text, see @ref{Text markup}. Do not
2636 forget to change the font, as the default number font does not contain
2637 alphabetic characters. Or,
2638 @item the list @code{(volta #f)}, which
2639 stops a running volta bracket:
2642 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment,relative 2]
2644 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
2646 \property Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
2653 Internals: @internalsref{VoltaBracket}, @internalsref{RepeatedMusic},
2654 @internalsref{VoltaRepeatedMusic},
2655 @internalsref{UnfoldedRepeatedMusic}, and
2656 @internalsref{FoldedRepeatedMusic}.
2658 @node Tremolo repeats
2659 @subsection Tremolo repeats
2660 @cindex tremolo beams
2662 To place tremolo marks between notes, use @code{\repeat} with tremolo
2664 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2666 \context Voice \notes\relative c' {
2667 \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
2668 \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
2669 \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
2674 Tremolo marks can also be put on a single note. In this case, the
2675 note should not be surrounded by braces.
2676 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2677 \repeat "tremolo" 4 c16
2680 A similar mechanism is the tremolo subdivision, described in
2681 @ref{Tremolo subdivisions}.
2685 In this manual: @ref{Tremolo subdivisions}, @ref{Repeats}.
2687 Internals: tremolo beams are @internalsref{Beam} objects. Single stem
2688 tremolos are @internalsref{StemTremolo}s. The music expression is
2689 @internalsref{TremoloEvent},
2691 Example files: @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-tremolo.ly},
2692 @inputfileref{input/regression,stem-tremolo.ly}.
2694 @node Tremolo subdivisions
2695 @subsection Tremolo subdivisions
2696 @cindex tremolo marks
2697 @cindex @code{tremoloFlags}
2699 Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding
2700 `@code{:}[@var{length}]' after the note. The length must be at least 8.
2701 A @var{length} value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the
2702 length is omitted, then then the last value (stored in
2703 @code{Voice.tremoloFlags}) is used:
2705 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,center]
2706 c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |
2709 @c [TODO : stok is te kort bij 32en]
2713 Tremolos in this style do not carry over into the MIDI output.
2717 In this manual: @ref{Tremolo repeats}.
2719 Elsewhere: @internalsref{StemTremolo}, @internalsref{TremoloEvent}.
2721 @node Measure repeats
2722 @subsection Measure repeats
2724 @cindex percent repeats
2725 @cindex measure repeats
2727 In the @code{percent} style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is
2728 printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign.
2729 Patterns of a one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs,
2730 patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes:
2732 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
2733 \context Voice { \repeat "percent" 4 { c'4 }
2734 \repeat "percent" 2 { c'2 es'2 f'4 fis'4 g'4 c''4 }
2740 Internals: @internalsref{RepeatSlash}, @internalsref{PercentRepeat},
2741 @internalsref{PercentRepeatedMusic}, and
2742 @internalsref{DoublePercentRepeat}.
2746 @node Rhythmic music
2747 @section Rhythmic music
2749 Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This
2750 can be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a
2751 staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single line:
2753 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
2754 \context RhythmicStaff {
2756 c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
2762 Internals: @internalsref{RhythmicStaff}.
2764 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,rhythmic-staff.ly}.
2768 * Percussion staves::
2769 * Percussion MIDI output::
2772 @node Percussion staves
2773 @subsection Percussion staves
2777 A percussion part for more than one instrument typically uses a
2778 multiline staff where each position in the staff refers to one piece
2783 Percussion staves are typeset with help of a set of Scheme
2784 functions. The system is based on the general MIDI drum-pitches.
2785 Include @file{drumpitch-init.ly} to use drum pitches. This file
2786 defines the pitches from the Scheme variable @code{drum-pitch-names},
2787 the definition of which can be read in @file{scm/drums.scm}. Each
2788 piece of percussion has a full name and an abbreviated name, and either
2789 the full name or the abbreviation may be used in input files.
2791 To typeset the music on a staff apply the function @code{drums->paper}
2792 to the percussion music. This function takes a list of percussion
2793 instrument names, notehead scripts and staff positions (i.e.
2794 pitches relative to the C-clef) and transforms the input
2795 music by moving the pitch, changing the notehead and (optionally)
2798 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,quote]
2799 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2800 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
2801 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
2803 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <<
2805 \new Voice { \voiceOne \up }
2806 \new Voice { \voiceTwo \down }
2811 In the above example the music was transformed using the list @code{'drums}.
2812 The following lists are defined in @file{scm/drums.scm}:
2815 to typeset a typical drum kit on a five-line staff:
2818 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2819 nam = \lyrics { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2820 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl }
2821 mus = \notes { cymc cyms cymr hh hhc hho hhho hhp cb hc
2822 bd sn ss tomh tommh tomml toml tomfh tomfl s16 }
2825 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \context Staff <<
2829 \context Lyrics \nam
2832 linewidth = 100.0\mm
2835 \remove Bar_engraver
2836 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2837 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4.0 . 5.0)
2841 \remove Stem_engraver
2847 The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there fewer toms, simply
2848 select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e. to get toms on
2849 the three middle lines you use @code{tommh}, @code{tomml} and
2852 Because general MIDI does not contain rimshots the sidestick is used
2853 for this purpose instead.
2855 to typeset timbales on a two line staff:
2857 @lilypond[singleline]
2858 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2859 nam = \lyrics { timh ssh timl ssl cb }
2860 mus = \notes { timh ssh timl ssl cb s16 }
2863 \apply #(drums->paper 'timbales) \context Staff <<
2867 \context Lyrics \nam
2872 \remove Bar_engraver
2873 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2874 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2875 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2876 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2880 \remove Stem_engraver
2887 to typeset congas on a two line staff:
2889 @lilypond[singleline]
2890 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2891 nam = \lyrics { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl }
2892 mus = \notes { cgh cgho cghm ssh cgl cglo cglm ssl s16 }
2895 \apply #(drums->paper 'congas) \context Staff <<
2899 \context Lyrics \nam
2904 \remove Bar_engraver
2905 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2906 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2907 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2908 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2912 \remove Stem_engraver
2918 to typeset bongos on a two line staff:
2920 @lilypond[singleline]
2921 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2922 nam = \lyrics { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl }
2923 mus = \notes { boh boho bohm ssh bol bolo bolm ssl s16 }
2926 \apply #(drums->paper 'bongos) \context Staff <<
2930 \context Lyrics \nam
2935 \remove Bar_engraver
2936 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2937 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #2
2938 StaffSymbol \override #'staff-space = #2
2939 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3.0 . 4.0)
2943 \remove Stem_engraver
2949 to typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves:
2950 @lilypond[singleline]
2951 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2952 nam = \lyrics { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc }
2953 mus = \notes { tri trio trim gui guis guil cb cl tamb cab mar hc s16 }
2956 \apply #(drums->paper 'percussion) \context Staff <<
2960 \context Lyrics \nam
2965 \remove Bar_engraver
2966 \remove Time_signature_engraver
2967 StaffSymbol \override #'line-count = #1
2968 minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-2.0 . 3.0)
2972 \remove Stem_engraver
2979 If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own
2980 list at the top of your file:
2982 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
2983 #(set-drum-kit 'mydrums `(
2984 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
2985 (snare default #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 1 0))
2986 (hihat cross #f ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2987 (pedalhihat xcircle "stopped" ,(ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
2988 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
2990 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
2991 up = \notes { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
2992 down = \notes { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
2994 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <<
2996 \new Voice { \voiceOne \up }
2997 \new Voice { \voiceTwo \down }
3002 To use a modified existing list, one can prepend modifications to the
3006 #(set-drum-kit 'mydrums (append `(
3007 (bassdrum default #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 2 0))
3008 (lowtom diamond #f ,(ly:make-pitch -1 6 0))
3009 ) (get-drum-kit 'drums)))
3012 You can easily combine percussion notation with pitched notation.
3013 Indeed, the file @file{drumpitch-init.ly} replaces the normal pitch
3014 names, so you will have to reinclude @file{nederlands.ly} after the
3015 drum-pattern-definitions to enter normal notes:
3017 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3018 \include "drumpitch-init.ly"
3019 up = \notes { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
3020 down = \notes { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
3021 \include "nederlands.ly"
3022 bass = \notes \transpose c c,, { a4. e8 r e g e }
3025 \apply #(drums->paper 'drums) \new Staff <<
3027 \new Voice { \voiceOne \up }
3028 \new Voice { \voiceTwo \down }
3030 \new Staff { \clef "F_8" \bass }
3035 @node Percussion MIDI output
3036 @subsection Percussion MIDI output
3038 In order to produce correct MIDI output you need to produce two score
3039 blocks---one for the paper and one for the MIDI output. To use the
3040 percussion channel you set the property @code{instrument} to
3041 @code{'drums}. Because the drum-pitches themselves are similar to the
3042 general MIDI pitches all you have to do is to insert the voices with
3043 none of the scheme functions to get the correct MIDI output:
3047 \apply #(drums->paper 'mydrums) \context Staff <<
3056 \property Staff.instrument = #'drums
3066 Chords entered with @code{< @dots{} >} do not work. This scheme is a
3067 temporary implementation.
3071 @section Piano music
3073 Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves
3074 are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the
3075 two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key
3076 instruments. The @internalsref{PianoStaff} is especially built to
3077 handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the
3078 @internalsref{PianoStaff} and some other pianistic peculiarities.
3082 * Automatic staff changes::
3083 * Manual staff switches::
3086 * Staff switch lines::
3091 There is no support for putting chords across staves. You can get
3092 this result by increasing the length of the stem in the lower stave so
3093 it reaches the stem in the upper stave, or vice versa. An example is
3094 included with the distribution as
3095 @inputfileref{input/test,stem-cross-staff.ly}.
3097 Dynamics are not centered, but kludges do exist. See
3098 @inputfileref{input/template,piano-dynamics.ly}.
3100 @cindex cross staff stem
3101 @cindex stem, cross staff
3104 @c fixme: should have hyperlinks as well.
3110 @node Automatic staff changes
3111 @subsection Automatic staff changes
3112 @cindex Automatic staff changes
3114 Voices can switch automatically between the top and the bottom
3115 staff. The syntax for this is
3117 \autochange Staff \context Voice @{ @dots{}@var{music}@dots{} @}
3119 The two staffs of the piano staff must be named @code{up} and
3122 The autochanger switches on basis of pitch (central C is the turning
3123 point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch in
3124 advance. Here is a practical example:
3126 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,quote]
3127 \score { \notes \context PianoStaff <<
3128 \context Staff = "up" {
3129 \autochange Staff \context Voice = VA << \relative c' {
3130 g4 a b c d r4 a g } >> }
3131 \context Staff = "down" {
3138 In this example, spacer rests are used to prevent the bottom staff from
3139 terminating too soon.
3144 In this manual: @ref{Manual staff switches}
3146 Internals: @internalsref{AutoChangeMusic}.
3152 The staff switches often do not end up in optimal places. For high
3153 quality output, staff switches should be specified manually.
3156 @node Manual staff switches
3157 @subsection Manual staff switches
3159 @cindex manual staff switches
3160 @cindex staff switch, manual
3162 Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the following command:
3164 \change Staff = @var{staffname} @var{music}
3168 The string @var{staffname} is the name of the staff. It switches the
3169 current voice from its current staff to the Staff called
3170 @var{staffname}. Typically @var{staffname} is @code{"up"} or
3179 Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound are produced. Generally, a
3180 piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.
3184 Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching
3185 @code{\sustainDown}, @code{\sustainUp}, @code{\unaCorda},
3186 @code{\treCorde}, @code{\sostenutoDown} and @code{\sostenutoUp} to a
3189 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3190 c'4\sustainDown c'4\sustainUp
3193 What is printed can be modified by setting @code{pedal@var{X}Strings},
3194 where @var{X} is one of the pedal types: @code{Sustain},
3195 @code{Sostenuto} or @code{UnaCorda}. Refer to the generated
3196 documentation of @internalsref{SustainPedal} for more information.
3198 Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the
3199 @code{pedalSustainStyle} property to @code{bracket} objects:
3201 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3202 \property Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'bracket
3203 c''4\sustainDown d''4 e''4
3204 a'4\sustainUp\sustainDown
3205 f'4 g'4 a'4\sustainUp
3208 A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets,
3209 obtained by setting the @code{pedalSustainStyle} style property to
3212 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3213 \property Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'mixed
3214 c''4\sustainDown d''4 e''4
3215 c'4\sustainUp\sustainDown
3216 f'4 g'4 a'4\sustainUp
3219 The default `*Ped' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to
3220 style @code{#'text}. The sostenuto pedal uses @code{mixed} style by
3223 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3224 c''4\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4 f'4 g'4 a'4\sostenutoUp
3227 For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties
3228 @code{edge-width}, @code{edge-height}, and @code{shorten-pair} of
3229 @code{PianoPedalBracket} objects (see
3230 @internalsref{PianoPedalBracket} in the Program reference) can be modified. For example, the
3231 bracket may be extended to the end of the note head:
3233 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3234 \property Staff.PianoPedalBracket \override
3235 #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
3236 c''4\sostenutoDown d''4 e''4 c'4
3237 f'4 g'4 a'4\sostenutoUp
3241 @subsection Arpeggio
3244 @cindex broken arpeggio
3245 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
3247 You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an
3248 @code{\arpeggio} to a chord:
3251 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3255 When an arpeggio crosses staves, you attach an arpeggio to the chords
3256 in both staves, and set
3257 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@code{connectArpeggios}:
3259 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3260 \context PianoStaff <<
3261 \property PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
3262 \new Staff { <c' e g c>\arpeggio }
3263 \new Staff { \clef bass <c,, e g>\arpeggio }
3267 The direction of the arpeggio is sometimes denoted by adding an
3268 arrowhead to the wiggly line. This can be typeset by setting
3269 @code{arpeggio-direction}:
3271 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3273 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #1
3275 \property Voice.Arpeggio \set #'arpeggio-direction = #-1
3280 A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not
3281 arpeggiate the chord. To draw these brackets, set the
3282 @code{molecule-callback} property of @code{Arpeggio} or
3283 @code{PianoStaff.Arpeggio} objects to @code{\arpeggioBracket}, and use
3284 @code{\arpeggio} statements within the chords as before:
3286 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3287 \property PianoStaff.Arpeggio \override
3288 #'molecule-callback = \arpeggioBracket
3294 @cindex @code{\arpeggioBracket}
3295 @code{\arpeggioBracket},
3296 @cindex @code{\arpeggio}
3301 Internals: @internalsref{ArpeggioEvent} music expressions lead to
3302 @internalsref{Arpeggio} objects. Cross staff arpeggios are
3303 @internalsref{PianoStaff}.@internalsref{Arpeggio}.
3307 It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected
3308 arpeggios in one @internalsref{PianoStaff} at the same time.
3310 @node Staff switch lines
3311 @subsection Staff switch lines
3314 @cindex follow voice
3315 @cindex staff switching
3318 @cindex @code{followVoice}
3320 Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes
3321 can be printed automatically. This is enabled if the property
3322 @code{PianoStaff.followVoice} is set to true:
3324 @lilypond[fragment,relative,verbatim]
3325 \context PianoStaff <<
3326 \property PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
3327 \context Staff \context Voice {
3332 \context Staff=two { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
3336 The associated object is @internalsref{VoiceFollower}.
3340 @cindex @code{\showStaffSwitch}
3341 @code{\showStaffSwitch},
3342 @cindex @code{\hideStaffSwitch}
3343 @code{\hideStaffSwitch}.
3347 @section Vocal music
3349 This section discusses how to enter and print lyrics.
3353 * The Lyrics context::
3358 @node Entering lyrics
3359 @subsection Entering lyrics
3363 @cindex @code{\lyrics}
3366 Lyrics are entered in a special input mode. This mode is is introduced
3367 by the keyword @code{\lyrics}. In this mode you can enter lyrics, with
3368 punctuation and accents without any hassle. Syllables are entered like
3369 notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example,
3371 \lyrics @{ Twin-4 kle4 twin- kle litt- le star2 @}
3374 A word in Lyrics mode begins with: an alphabetic character, @code{_},
3375 @code{?}, @code{!}, @code{:}, @code{'}, the control characters @code{^A}
3376 through @code{^F}, @code{^Q} through @code{^W}, @code{^Y}, @code{^^},
3377 any 8-bit character with ASCII code over 127, or a two-character
3378 combination of a backslash followed by one of @code{`}, @code{'},
3379 @code{"}, or @code{^}.
3381 Subsequent characters of a word can be any character that is not a digit
3382 and not white space. One important consequence of this is that a word
3383 can end with @code{@}}. The following example is usually a bug. The
3384 syllable includes a @code{@}}, and hence the opening brace is not balanced:
3386 \lyrics @{ twinkle@}
3389 @cindex @code{\property}, in @code{\lyrics}
3390 Similarly, a period following a alphabetic sequence, is included in the
3391 resulting string. As a consequence, spaces must be inserted around
3392 @code{\property} commands:
3394 \property Lyrics . LyricText \set #'font-shape = #'italic
3398 @cindex spaces, in lyrics
3399 @cindex quotes, in lyrics
3401 Any @code{_} character which appears in an unquoted word is converted
3402 to a space. This provides a mechanism for introducing spaces into words
3403 without using quotes. Quoted words can also be used in Lyrics mode to
3404 specify words that cannot be written with the above rules:
3407 \lyrics @{ He said: "\"Let" my peo ple "go\"" @}
3411 Hyphens can be entered as ordinary hyphens at the end of a syllable, i.e.
3416 These will be attached to the end of the first syllable.
3418 Centered hyphens are entered using the special `@code{-}@code{-}' lyric
3419 as a separate word between syllables. The hyphen will have variable
3420 length depending on the space between the syllables and it will be
3421 centered between the syllables.
3426 When a lyric is sung over many notes (this is called a melisma), this is
3427 indicated with a horizontal line centered between a syllable and the
3428 next one. Such a line is called an extender line, and it is entered as
3433 Internals: @internalsref{LyricEvent}, @internalsref{HyphenEvent}, and
3434 @internalsref{ExtenderEvent}.
3438 The definition of lyrics mode is too complex.
3440 @node The Lyrics context
3441 @subsection The Lyrics context
3443 Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in a @internalsref{LyricsVoice} context:
3445 \context LyricsVoice \lyrics @dots{}
3448 @cindex automatic syllable durations
3449 @cindex @code{\lyricsto}
3450 @cindex lyrics and melodies
3452 This will place the lyrics according to the durations that were
3453 entered. The lyrics can also be aligned under a given melody
3454 automatically. In this case, it is no longer necessary to enter the
3455 correct duration for each syllable. This is achieved by combining the
3456 melody and the lyrics with the @code{\lyricsto} expression:
3458 \lyricsto @var{name} \new LyricsVoice @dots{}
3461 This aligns the lyrics to the
3463 notes of the @internalsref{Voice} context called @var{name}, which has
3464 to exist. Therefore, normally the @code{Voice} is specified first, and
3465 then the lyrics are specified with @code{\lyricsto}.
3467 For different or more complex orderings, the best way is to setup the
3468 hierarchy of staves and lyrics first, e.g.
3470 \context ChoirStaff \notes <<
3471 \context LyricsVoice = sopranoLyrics @{ s1 @}
3472 \context Voice = soprano @{ @emph{music} @}
3473 \context LyricsVoice = tenor @{ s1 @}
3474 \context Voice = tenorLyrics @{ @emph{music} @}
3477 and then combine the appropriate melodies and lyric lines:
3479 \lyricsto "soprano" \new LyricsVoice @emph{the lyrics}
3483 The final input would resemble
3486 << \context ChoirStaff \notes << @emph{setup the music} >>
3487 \lyricsto "soprano" @emph{etc}
3488 \lyricsto "alto" @emph{etc}
3494 The @code{\lyricsto} command detects melismata: it only puts one
3495 syllable under a tied or slurred group of notes. If you want to force
3496 an unslurred group of notes to be a melisma, then insert
3497 @code{\melisma} after the first note of the group, and
3498 @code{\melismaEnd} after the last one, e.g.
3500 @lilypond[relative 1, singleline, fragment,verbatim]
3501 << \context Voice = "lala" { \time 3/4
3507 \lyricsto "lala" \new LyricsVoice \lyrics {
3512 In addition, notes are considered a melisma if they are manually
3513 beamed, and automatic beaming (see @ref{Setting automatic beam
3514 behavior}) is switched off. The criteria for deciding melismata
3515 can be tuned with the property @code{melismaBusyProperties}. See
3516 @internalsref{Melisma_engraver} for more information.
3518 When multiple stanzas are put on the same melody, it can happen that
3519 two stanzas have melismata in different locations. This can be
3520 remedied by switching off melismata for one
3521 @internalsref{LyricsVoice}. This is achieved by setting
3522 the @code{ignoreMelismata} property to @code{#t}. An example is shown
3523 in @inputfileref{input/regression,lyric-combine-new.ly}.
3526 @cindex choral score
3528 A complete example of a SATB score setup is in the file
3529 @inputfileref{input/template,satb.ly}.
3533 @code{\melisma}, @code{\melismaEnd}
3534 @cindex @code{\melismaEnd}
3535 @cindex @code{\melisma}
3539 Internals: Music expressions: @internalsref{LyricCombineMusic},
3540 Contexts: @internalsref{LyricsVoice}, @internalsref{Melisma_engraver}.
3542 Examples: @inputfileref{input/template,satb.ly},
3543 @inputfileref{input/regression,lyric-combine-new.ly}.
3547 Melismata are not detected automatically, and extender lines must be
3552 @subsection More stanzas
3554 @cindex phrasing, in lyrics
3557 The lyrics should be aligned with the note heads of the melody. To
3558 achieve this, each line of lyrics should be marked to correspond with
3561 To this end, give the @internalsref{Voice} context an identity:
3563 \context Voice = duet @{
3568 Then set the @internalsref{LyricsVoice} contexts to names starting with
3569 that identity followed by a dash. In the preceding example, the
3570 @internalsref{Voice} identity is @code{duet}, so the identities of the
3571 @internalsref{LyricsVoice}s are marked @code{duet-1} and @code{duet-2}:
3573 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-1" @{
3574 Hi, my name is bert. @}
3575 \context LyricsVoice = "duet-2" @{
3576 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. @}
3579 The complete example is shown here:
3580 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
3582 << \notes \relative c'' \context Voice = duet { \time 3/4
3584 \lyrics << \lyricsto "duet" \new LyricsVoice {
3585 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "1"
3586 Hi, my name is bert. }
3587 \lyricsto "duet" \new LyricsVoice {
3588 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "2"
3589 Ooooo, ch\'e -- ri, je t'aime. }
3594 @cindex stanza number
3595 @cindex singer's names
3596 @cindex name of singer
3598 Stanza numbers can be added by setting @code{LyricsVoice.stanza}, e.g.
3601 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Bert"
3603 \property LyricsVoice . stanza = "Ernie"
3606 Notice how dots are surrounded with spaces in @code{\lyrics} mode, to
3607 prevent @code{LyricsVoice.stanza} being interpreted as a single
3610 Names of the singers should be added using @code{LyricsVoice
3611 . vocalName} and @code{LyricsVoice . vocNam}, analogous to instrument
3612 annotations for staves.
3614 To make empty spaces in lyrics, use @code{\skip}.
3619 Internals: Layout objects @internalsref{LyricText}
3620 @internalsref{VocalName}. Music expressions:
3621 @internalsref{LyricEvent}.
3627 Input for lyrics introduces a syntactical ambiguity:
3634 is interpreted as assigning a string identifier @code{\foo} such that
3635 it contains @code{"bar"}. However, it could also be interpreted as
3636 making or a music identifier @code{\foo} containing the syllable
3637 `bar'. The force the latter interpretation, use
3649 The term @emph{ambitus} (plural: ambituses) denotes a range of pitches
3650 for a given voice in a part of music. It also may denote the pitch
3651 range that a musical instrument is capable of playing. Most musical
3652 instruments have their ambitus standardized (or at least there is
3653 agreement upon the minimal ambitus of a particular type of
3654 instrument), such that a composer or arranger of a piece of music can
3655 easily meet the ambitus constraints of the targeted instrument.
3656 However, the ambitus of the human voice depends on individual
3657 physiological state, including education and training of the voice.
3658 Therefore, a singer potentially has to check for each piece of music
3659 if the ambitus of that piece meets his individual capabilities. This
3660 is why the ambitus of a piece may be of particular value to vocal
3663 The ambitus is typically notated on a per-voice basis at the very
3664 beginning of a piece, e.g. nearby the initial clef or time signature of
3665 each staff. The range is graphically specified by two noteheads, that
3666 represent the minimum and maximum pitch. Some publishers use a textual
3667 notation: they put the range in words in front of the corresponding
3668 staff. LilyPond only supports the graphical ambitus notation.
3670 To apply, add the @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the
3671 @internalsref{Voice} context, i.e.
3677 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3682 This results in the following output:
3683 @lilypond[singleline]
3684 upper = \notes \relative c {
3687 as'' c e2 bes f cis d4 e f2 g
3689 lower = \notes \relative c {
3692 e'4 b g a c es fis a cis b a g f e d2
3695 \context ChoirStaff {
3697 \new Staff { \upper }
3698 \new Staff { \lower }
3704 \consists Ambitus_engraver
3710 If you have multiple voices in a single staff, and you want a single
3711 ambitus per staff rather than per each voice, then add the
3712 @internalsref{Ambitus_engraver} to the @internalsref{Staff} context
3713 rather than to the @internalsref{Voice} context.
3715 It is possible to tune individual ambituses for multiple voices on a
3716 single staff, for example by erasing or shifting them horizontally. An
3717 example is in @inputfileref{input/test,ambitus-mixed.ly}
3721 Internals: @internalsref{Ambitus}
3723 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,ambitus.ly},
3724 @inputfileref{input/test,ambitus-mixed.ly}.
3728 There is no collision handling in the case of multiple per-voice
3734 Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string
3735 instruments. It notates pitches not by using note heads, but by
3736 indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond
3737 offers limited support for tablature.
3740 * Tablatures basic::
3741 * Non-guitar tablatures::
3744 @node Tablatures basic
3745 @subsection Tablatures basic
3746 @cindex Tablatures basic
3748 The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash
3749 followed by a number, e.g. @code{c4\3} for a C quarter on the third
3750 string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning
3751 defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes
3752 are printed as tablature, by using @internalsref{TabStaff} and
3753 @internalsref{TabVoice} contexts:
3755 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3756 \notes \context TabStaff {
3764 When no string is specified, the first string that does not give a
3765 fret number less than @code{minimumFret} is selected. The default
3766 value for @code{minimumFret} is 0:
3770 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3771 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3772 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3777 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3778 \property TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
3779 e8 fis gis a b cis' dis' e'
3782 \context StaffGroup <<
3783 \context Staff { \clef "G_8" \frag }
3784 \context TabStaff { \frag }
3791 Internals: @internalsref{TabStaff}, @internalsref{TabVoice}, and
3792 @internalsref{StringNumberEvent}.
3796 Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic
3797 string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a
3801 @node Non-guitar tablatures
3802 @subsection Non-guitar tablatures
3803 @cindex Non-guitar tablatures
3805 You can change the number of strings, by setting the number of lines
3806 in the @internalsref{TabStaff}.
3808 You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as
3809 a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number
3810 being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to central C) of an
3811 open string. The numbers specified for @code{stringTuning} are the
3812 numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch
3813 by default middle C, in string order. Thus, the notes are e, a, d, and
3816 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3817 \context TabStaff <<
3818 \property TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
3821 a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
3826 It is possible to change the Scheme function to format the tablature
3827 note text. The default is @code{fret-number-tablature-format}, which
3828 uses the fret number. For instruments that do not use this notation,
3829 you can create a special tablature formatting function. This function
3830 takes three argument: string number, string tuning and note pitch.
3834 No guitar special effects have been implemented.
3839 @section Chord names
3842 LilyPond has support for both printing chord names. Chords may be
3843 entered in musical chord notation, i.e. @code{< .. >}, but they can
3844 also be entered by name. Internally, the chords are represented as a
3845 set of pitches, so they can be transposed:
3848 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
3849 twoWays = \notes \transpose c c' {
3859 << \context ChordNames \twoWays
3860 \context Voice \twoWays >> }
3863 This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to
3864 be intelligent. The last chord (@code{f bes d}) is not interpreted as
3870 * Printing chord names::
3875 @subsection Chords mode
3878 Chord mode is a mode where you can input sets of pitches using common
3879 names. It is introduced by the keyword @code{\chords}.
3880 In chords mode, a chord is entered by the root, which is entered
3881 like a common pitch:
3882 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote, relative=1]
3883 \chords { es4. d8 c2 }
3888 Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon, and introducing a
3889 modifier, and optionally, a number:
3891 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,quote]
3892 \chords { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }
3894 The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the
3895 chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified
3897 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3898 \chords { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }
3901 @cindex root of chord
3902 @cindex additions, in chords
3903 @cindex removals, in chords
3905 More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps
3906 to a chord. Additions are added after the number following
3907 the colon, and are separated by dots:
3909 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3910 \chords { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }
3912 Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a @code{-} or @code{+} sign
3914 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,quote]
3915 \chords { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }
3917 Removals are specified similarly, and are introduced by a caret. They
3918 must come after the additions:
3919 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3920 \chords { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }
3923 Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are
3927 is the minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.
3929 is the diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present)
3932 is the augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.
3934 is the major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.
3936 is the suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd
3937 step. Append either @code{2} or @code{4} to add the 2nd or 4th step to
3940 Modifiers can be mixed with additions:
3941 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3942 \chords { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }
3945 @cindex modifiers, in chords.
3952 Since an unaltered 11 does not sound good when combined with an
3953 unaltered 13, the 11 is removed in this case (unless it is added
3956 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
3957 \chords { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }
3962 An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well
3963 as bass notes, can be specified by appending
3964 @code{/}@var{pitch} to the chord:
3965 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3966 \chords { c1 c/g c/f }
3970 A bass note can be added instead of transposed out of the chord,
3971 by using @code{/+}@var{pitch}.
3973 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,center]
3974 \chords { c1 c/+g c/+f }
3977 Chords is a mode similar to @code{\lyrics}, @code{\notes} etc. Most
3978 of the commands continue to work, for example, @code{r} and
3979 @code{\skip} can be used to insert rests and spaces, and
3980 @code{\property} may be used to change various settings.
3986 Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following
3987 simply produces the augmented chord, since @code{5+} is interpreted
3990 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
3991 \chords { c:5.5-.5+ }
3995 @node Printing chord names
3996 @subsection Printing chord names
3998 @cindex printing chord names
4002 For displaying printed chord names, use the @internalsref{ChordNames} context.
4003 The chords may be entered either using the notation
4004 described above, or directly using @code{<} and @code{>}:
4006 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4008 \chords {a1 b c} <d' f' a'> <e' g' b'>
4012 \context ChordNames \scheme
4013 \context Staff \scheme
4018 You can make the chord changes stand out by setting
4019 @internalsref{ChordNames}.@code{chordChanges} to true. This will only
4020 display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at
4021 the start of a new line:
4023 @lilypond[verbatim, linewidth=9cm]
4025 c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
4029 \context ChordNames {
4030 \property ChordNames.chordChanges = ##t
4032 \context Staff \transpose c c' \scheme
4037 The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by
4038 Klaus Ignatzek (see @ref{Literature list}). It can be tuned through the
4039 following properties:
4042 @cindex chordNameExceptions
4043 @item chordNameExceptions
4044 This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.
4046 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly}.
4047 @cindex exceptions, chord names.
4050 @cindex majorSevenSymbol
4051 @item majorSevenSymbol
4052 This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when
4053 it is major. Predefined options are @code{whiteTriangleMarkup} and
4054 @code{blackTriangleMarkup}. See
4055 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly} for an example.
4057 @cindex chordNameSeparator
4058 @item chordNameSeparator
4059 Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a
4060 slash. By setting @code{chordNameSeparator}, you can specify other
4062 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4063 \context ChordNames \chords {
4065 \property ChordNames.chordNameSeparator
4066 = \markup { \typewriter "|" }
4070 @cindex chordRootNamer
4071 @item chordRootNamer
4072 The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional
4073 alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this
4074 function. Special note names (for example, the German ``H'' for a
4075 B-chord) can be produced by storing a new function in this property.
4077 The pre-defined variables @code{\germanChords},
4078 @code{\semiGermanChords} set these variables.
4081 @cindex chordNoteNamer
4082 @item chordNoteNamer
4083 The default is to print single pitch, e.g. the bass note, using the
4084 @code{chordRootNamer}. The @code{chordNoteNamer} property can be set
4085 to a specialized function to change this behavior. For example, the
4086 base can be printed in lower case.
4091 There are also two other chord name schemes implemented: an alternate
4092 Jazz chord notation, and a systematic scheme called Banter chords. The
4093 alternate jazz notation is also shown on the chart in @ref{Chord name
4094 chart}. Turning on these styles is described in the input file
4095 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-jazz.ly}.
4099 @cindex chords, jazz
4104 @cindex @code{\germanChords}
4105 @code{\germanChords},
4106 @cindex @code{\semiGermanChords}
4107 @code{\semiGermanChords}.
4114 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-major7.ly},
4115 @inputfileref{input/regression,chord-name-exceptions.ly},
4116 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-jazz.ly},
4117 @inputfileref{input/test,chord-names-german.ly}.
4119 Init files: @file{scm/chords-ignatzek.scm}, and @file{scm/chord-entry.scm}.
4124 Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord
4125 inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This
4126 may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the
4127 @code{< .. >} syntax.
4132 @node Orchestral music
4133 @section Orchestral music
4135 @cindex Writing parts
4137 Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full
4138 score and the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle
4139 some common problems in orchestral music.
4144 * Multiple staff contexts::
4147 * Instrument names::
4149 * Multi measure rests::
4150 * Automatic part combining::
4152 * Different editions from one source::
4153 * Sound output for transposing instruments::
4156 @node Multiple staff contexts
4157 @subsection Multiple staff contexts
4159 Polyphonic scores consist of many staves. These staves can be
4160 constructed in three different ways:
4162 @item The group is started with a brace at the left. This is done with the
4163 @internalsref{GrandStaff} context.
4164 @item The group is started with a bracket. This is done with the
4165 @internalsref{StaffGroup} context
4166 @item The group is started with a vertical line. This is the default
4170 @cindex Staff, multiple
4171 @cindex bracket, vertical
4172 @cindex brace, vertical
4179 @node Rehearsal marks
4180 @subsection Rehearsal marks
4181 @cindex Rehearsal marks
4183 @cindex @code{\mark}
4185 To print a rehearsal mark, use the @code{\mark} command:
4186 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4197 (The letter I is skipped in accordance with engraving traditions.)
4199 The mark is incremented automatically if you use @code{\mark
4200 \default}, but you can also use an integer argument to set the mark
4201 manually. The value to use is stored in the property
4202 @code{rehearsalMark}.
4204 The style is defined by the property @code{markFormatter}. It is a
4205 function taking the current mark (an integer) and the current context
4206 as argument. It should return a markup object. In the following
4207 example, @code{markFormatter} is set to a canned procedure. After a
4208 few measures, it is set to function that produces a boxed number.
4210 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative 1]
4211 \property Score.markFormatter = #format-mark-numbers
4214 \property Score.markFormatter
4215 = #(lambda (mark context)
4216 (make-bold-markup (make-box-markup (number->string mark))))
4221 The file @file{scm/translation-functions.scm} contains the definitions
4222 of @code{format-mark-numbers} (the default format) and
4223 @code{format-mark-letters}. They can be used as inspiration for other
4224 formatting functions.
4227 @cindex coda on bar line
4228 @cindex segno on bar line
4229 @cindex fermata on bar line
4230 @cindex bar lines, symbols on
4232 The @code{\mark} command can also be used to put signs like coda,
4233 segno and fermatas on a barline. Use @code{\markup} to
4234 to access the appropriate symbol:
4236 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,relative=1]
4237 c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts-ufermata" }
4241 In this case, during line breaks, marks must also be printed at the
4242 end of the line, and not at the beginning. Use the following to force
4245 \property Score.RehearsalMark \override
4246 #'break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible
4252 @cindex barlines, putting symbols on
4256 Internals: @internalsref{MarkEvent}, @internalsref{RehearsalMark}
4258 Init files: @file{scm/translation-functions.scm} contains the
4259 definition of @code{format-mark-numbers} and
4260 @code{format-mark-letters}. They can be used as inspiration for other
4261 formatting functions.
4263 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,rehearsal-mark-letter.ly},
4264 @inputfileref{input/regression,rehearsal-mark-number.ly}.
4268 @subsection Bar numbers
4272 @cindex measure numbers
4273 @cindex currentBarNumber
4275 Bar numbers are printed by default at the start of the line. The
4276 number itself is stored in the
4277 @code{currentBarNumber} property,
4278 which is normally updated automatically for every measure.
4280 Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of at the
4281 beginning of each line. This is illustrated in the following example,
4282 whose source is available as
4283 @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-regular-interval.ly}:
4285 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{bar-number-regular-interval.ly}
4290 Internals: @internalsref{BarNumber}.
4292 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-every-five-reset.ly},
4293 and @inputfileref{input/test,bar-number-regular-interval.ly}.
4297 Bar numbers can collide with the @internalsref{StaffGroup} bracket, if
4298 there is one at the top. To solve this, the
4299 @code{padding} property of @internalsref{BarNumber} can be
4300 used to position the number correctly.
4302 @node Instrument names
4303 @subsection Instrument names
4305 In an orchestral score, instrument names are printed left side of the
4308 This can be achieved by setting @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instrument}
4309 and @internalsref{Staff}.@code{instr}. This will print a string before
4310 the start of the staff. For the first start, @code{instrument} is
4311 used, for the next ones @code{instr} is used:
4314 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline]
4315 \property Staff.instrument = "ploink " { c''4 }
4319 You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument
4323 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim,singleline]
4325 \property Staff.instrument = \markup {
4326 \column < "Clarinetti"
4328 \smaller \musicglyph #"accidentals--1"
4339 Internals: @internalsref{InstrumentName}.
4343 When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the
4344 brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of
4345 the name to avoid a collision.
4348 @subsection Transpose
4350 @cindex transposition of pitches
4351 @cindex @code{\transpose}
4353 A music expression can be transposed with @code{\transpose}. The syntax
4356 \transpose @var{from} @var{to} @var{musicexpr}
4359 This means that @var{musicexpr} is transposed by the interval
4360 between the pitches @var{from} and @var{to}.
4361 Since @var{from} and @var{to} are pitches, @code{\transpose} must be
4362 inside a @code{\notes} section.
4364 @code{\transpose} distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both
4365 @code{\transpose c cis} or @code{\transpose c des} will transpose up
4366 half a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second
4367 version will print flats:
4369 @lilypond[singleline, verbatim]
4370 mus =\notes { \key d \major cis d fis g }
4371 \score { \notes \context Staff {
4374 \transpose c g' \mus
4375 \transpose c f' \mus
4382 Internals: @internalsref{TransposedMusic}, and
4383 @internalsref{UntransposableMusic}.
4387 If you want to use both @code{\transpose} and @code{\relative}, then
4388 you must put @code{\transpose} outside of @code{\relative}, since
4389 @code{\relative} will have no effect music that appears inside a
4395 @node Multi measure rests
4396 @subsection Multi measure rests
4397 @cindex multi measure rests
4398 @cindex Rests, multi measure
4402 Multi measure rests are entered using `@code{R}'. It is specifically
4403 meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand
4404 to fill a score with rests, or it can be printed as a single
4405 multimeasure rest. This expansion is controlled by the property
4406 @code{Score.skipBars}. If this is set to true, empty measures will not
4407 be expanded, and the appropriate number is added automatically:
4409 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4410 \time 4/4 r1 | R1 | R1*2
4411 \property Score.skipBars = ##t R1*17 R1*4
4414 The @code{1} in @code{R1} is similar to the duration notation used for
4415 notes. Hence, for time signatures other than 4/4, you must enter other
4416 durations. This can be done with augmentation dots or fractions:
4418 @lilypond[fragment,verbatim]
4419 \property Score.skipBars = ##t
4427 An @code{R} spanning a single measure is printed as either a whole rest
4428 or a breve, centered in the measure regardless of the time signature.
4430 @cindex text on multi-measure rest
4431 @cindex script on multi-measure rest
4432 @cindex fermata on multi-measure rest
4434 Texts can be added to multi-measure rests by using the
4435 @var{note}-@code{markup} syntax (see @ref{Text markup}). In this case, the number is
4436 replaced. If you need both texts and the number, you must add the
4437 number by hand. A variable (@code{\fermataMarkup}) is provided for
4441 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
4443 R2._\markup { "Ad lib" }
4447 If you want to have a text on the left end of a multi-measure rest,
4448 attach the text to a zero-length skip note, i.e.
4456 @cindex whole rests for a full measure
4460 Internals: @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestEvent},
4461 @internalsref{MultiMeasureTextEvent},
4462 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestMusicGroup}, and
4463 @internalsref{MultiMeasureRest}.
4465 The layout object @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestNumber} is for the
4466 default number, and @internalsref{MultiMeasureRestText} for user
4471 It is not possible to use fingerings (e.g. @code{R1-4}) to put numbers
4472 over multi-measure rests.
4474 @cindex condensing rests
4476 There is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into a single
4477 multimeasure rest. Multi measure rests do not take part in rest
4480 Be careful when entering multimeasure rests followed by whole
4481 notes. The following will enter two notes lasting four measures each:
4485 When @code{skipBars} is set, then the result will look OK, but the
4486 bar numbering will be off.
4488 @node Automatic part combining
4489 @subsection Automatic part combining
4490 @cindex automatic part combining
4491 @cindex part combiner
4494 Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a
4495 staff. It is aimed at typesetting orchestral scores. When the two
4496 parts are identical for a period of time, only one is shown. In
4497 places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate
4498 voices, and stem directions are set automatically. Also, solo and
4499 @emph{a due} parts are identified and can be marked.
4503 The syntax for part combining is
4506 \partcombine @var{context} @var{musicexpr1} @var{musicexpr2}
4508 where the pieces of music @var{musicexpr1} and @var{musicexpr2} will be
4509 combined into one context of type @var{context}. The music expressions
4510 must be interpreted by contexts whose names should start with @code{one}
4513 The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part
4514 combiner: putting parts on one staff, and setting stem directions and
4517 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
4519 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4520 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4523 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4529 The first @code{g} appears only once, although it was
4530 specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are
4531 set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The
4532 first part (with context called @code{one}) always gets up stems, and
4533 `solo', while the second (called @code{two}) always gets down stems and
4536 If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you
4537 may set the property @var{soloADue} to false:
4539 @lilypond[verbatim,singleline,fragment]
4541 \property Staff.soloADue = ##f
4542 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4543 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4546 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4554 Internals: @internalsref{PartCombineMusic},
4555 @internalsref{Thread_devnull_engraver}, and
4556 @internalsref{Voice_devnull_engraver} and @internalsref{A2_engraver}.
4560 The syntax for naming contexts in inconsistent with the syntax for
4563 In @code{soloADue} mode, when the two voices play the same notes on and
4564 off, the part combiner may typeset @code{a2} more than once in a
4567 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
4569 \context Voice=one \partcombine Voice
4570 \context Thread=one \relative c'' {
4573 \context Thread=two \relative c'' {
4579 The part combiner is rather buggy, and it will be replaced by a better
4580 mechanism in the near future.
4582 @cindex @code{Thread_devnull_engraver}
4583 @cindex @code{Voice_engraver}
4584 @cindex @code{A2_engraver}
4587 @subsection Hiding staves
4589 @cindex Frenched scores
4590 @cindex Hiding staves
4592 In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually
4593 removed. This saves some space. This style is called `French Score'.
4594 For @internalsref{Lyrics}, @internalsref{LyricsVoice},
4595 @internalsref{ChordNames} and @internalsref{FiguredBass}, this is
4596 switched on by default. When these line of these contexts turn out
4597 empty after the line-breaking process, they are removed.
4599 For normal staves, a specialized @internalsref{Staff} context is
4600 available, which does the same: staves containing nothing (or only
4601 multi measure rests) are removed. The context definition is stored in
4602 @code{\RemoveEmptyStaffContext} variable. Observe how the second staff
4603 in this example disappears in the second line:
4608 \notes \relative c' <<
4609 \new Staff { e4 f g a \break c1 }
4610 \new Staff { c4 d e f \break R1 }
4614 \translator { \RemoveEmptyStaffContext }
4619 The first page shows all staffs in full. If they should be removed
4620 from the first page too, set @code{remove-first} to false
4621 in @internalsref{RemoveEmptyVerticalGroup}.
4623 @node Different editions from one source
4624 @subsection Different editions from one source
4626 The @code{\tag} command marks music expressions with a name. These
4627 tagged expressions can be filtered out later. With this mechanism it
4628 is possible to make different versions of the same music source.
4630 In the following example, we see two versions of a piece of music, one
4631 for the full score, and one with cue notes for the instrumental part:
4639 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
4647 The same can be applied to articulations, texts, etc.: they are
4650 -\tag #@var{your-tag}
4652 to an articulation, for example,
4657 This defines a note with a conditional fingering indication.
4659 By applying the @code{remove-tag} function, tagged expressions can be
4660 filtered. For example,
4664 \apply #(remove-tag 'score) @var{the music}
4665 \apply #(remove-tag 'part) @var{the music}
4670 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{tag-filter.ly}
4672 The argument of the @code{\tag} command should be a symbol, or a list
4673 of symbols, for example,
4675 \tag #'(original-part transposed-part) @dots{}
4680 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,tag-filter.ly}
4683 @node Sound output for transposing instruments
4684 @subsection Sound output for transposing instruments
4686 When you want to make a MIDI file from a score containing transposed
4687 and untransposed instruments, you have to instruct LilyPond the pitch
4688 offset (in semitones) for the transposed instruments. This is done
4689 using the @code{transposing} property. It does not affect printed
4692 @cindex @code{transposing}
4695 \property Staff.instrument = #"Cl. in B-flat"
4696 \property Staff.transposing = #-2
4700 @node Ancient notation
4701 @section Ancient notation
4703 @cindex Vaticana, Editio
4704 @cindex Medicaea, Editio
4709 @c [TODO: write more comprehensive introduction on ancient notation]
4711 Support for ancient notation is still under heavy development.
4712 Regardless of all of the current limitations (see the bugs section
4713 below for details), it includes features for mensural
4714 notation and Gregorian Chant notation. There is also limited support
4715 for figured bass notation.
4717 Many graphical objects provide a @code{style} property, see
4718 @ref{Ancient note heads}, @ref{Ancient accidentals}, @ref{Ancient
4719 rests}, @ref{Ancient clefs}, @ref{Ancient flags} and @ref{Ancient time
4720 signatures}. By manipulating such a grob property, the typographical
4721 appearance of the affected graphical objects can be accomodated for a
4722 specific notation flavour without need for introducing any new
4726 Other aspects of ancient notation can not that easily be expressed as
4727 in terms of just changing a style property of a graphical object.
4728 Therefore, some notational concepts are introduced specifically for
4729 ancient notation, see @ref{Custodes}, @ref{Divisiones},
4730 @ref{Ligatures}, and @ref{Figured bass}.
4734 * Ancient note heads::
4735 * Ancient accidentals::
4739 * Ancient time signatures::
4744 * Vaticana style contexts::
4747 If this all is way too much of documentation for you, and you just
4748 want to dive into typesetting without worrying too much about the
4749 details on how to customize a context, then you may have a look at the
4750 predefined contexts (see @ref{Vaticana style contexts}). Use them to
4751 set up predefined style-specific voice and staff contexts, and
4752 directly go ahead with the note entry.
4756 Ligatures need special spacing that has not yet been implemented. As
4757 a result, there is too much space between ligatures most of the time,
4758 and line breaking often is unsatisfactory. Also, lyrics do not
4759 correctly align with ligatures.
4761 Accidentals must not be printed within a ligature, but instead need to
4762 be collected and printed in front of it.
4764 Augmentum dots within ligatures are not handled correctly.
4767 @node Ancient note heads
4768 @subsection Ancient note heads
4774 For ancient notation, a note head style other than the @code{default}
4775 style may be chosen. This is accomplished by setting the @code{style}
4776 property of the NoteHead object to the desired value (@code{baroque},
4777 @code{neo_mensural} or @code{mensural}). The @code{baroque} style
4778 differs from the @code{default} style only in using a square shape for
4779 @code{\breve} note heads. The @code{neo_mensural} style differs from
4780 the @code{baroque} style in that it uses rhomboidal heads for whole
4781 notes and all smaller durations. Stems are centered on the note
4782 heads. This style is in particular useful when transcribing mensural
4783 music, e.g. for the incipit. The @code{mensural} style finally
4784 produces note heads that mimick the look of note heads in historic
4785 printings of the 16th century.
4787 The following example demonstrates the @code{neo_mensural} style:
4789 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4790 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4791 a'\longa a'\breve a'1 a'2 a'4 a'8 a'16
4794 When typesetting a piece in Gregorian Chant notation, a Gregorian
4795 ligature engraver will automatically select the proper note heads,
4796 such there is no need to explicitly set the note head style. Still,
4797 the note head style can be set e.g. to @code{vaticana_punctum} to
4798 produce punctum neumes. Similarly, a mensural ligature engraver is
4799 used to automatically assemble mensural ligatures. See
4800 @ref{Ligatures} for how ligature engravers work.
4805 @ref{Percussion staves} use note head styles of their own that are
4806 frequently used in contemporary music notation.
4808 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,note-head-style.ly} gives an
4809 overview over all available note head styles.
4812 @node Ancient accidentals
4813 @subsection Ancient accidentals
4819 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{Accidental} to
4820 select ancient accidentals. Supported styles are
4821 @code{mensural}, @code{vaticana}, @code{hufnagel} and @code{medicaea}.
4823 @lilypond[singleline,26pt]
4831 { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-vaticana-1"
4832 " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-vaticana0" }
4836 { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-medicaea-1" }
4840 { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-hufnagel-1" }
4844 { " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-mensural-1"
4845 " " \musicglyph #"accidentals-mensural1" }
4854 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
4858 \remove "Clef_engraver"
4859 \remove "Key_engraver"
4860 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
4861 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
4862 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
4868 As shown, not all accidentals are supported by each style. When
4869 trying to access an unsupported accidental, LilyPond will switch to a
4870 different style, as demonstrated in
4871 @inputfileref{input/test,ancient-accidentals.ly}.
4873 Similarly to local accidentals, the style of the key signature can be
4874 controlled by the @code{style} property of the
4875 @internalsref{KeySignature} grob.
4879 In this manual: @ref{Pitches}, @ref{Chromatic alterations} and
4880 @ref{Accidentals} give a general introduction into the use of
4881 accidentals. @ref{Key signature} gives a general introduction into
4882 the use of key signatures.
4884 Internals: @internalsref{KeySignature}
4886 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,ancient-accidentals.ly}.
4889 @subsection Ancient rests
4895 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{Rest} to select
4896 ancient accidentals. Supported styles are @code{classical},
4897 @code{neo_mensural} and @code{mensural}. @code{classical} differs
4898 from the @code{default} style only in that the quarter rest looks like
4899 a horizontally mirrored 8th rest. The @code{neo_mensural} style suits
4900 well for e.g. the incipit of a transcribed mensural piece of music.
4901 The @code{mensural} style finally mimicks the appearance of rests as
4902 in historic prints of the 16th century.
4904 The following example demonstrates the @code{neo_mensural} style:
4906 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
4907 \property Voice.Rest \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
4908 r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16
4911 There are no 32th and 64th rests specifically for the mensural or
4912 neo-mensural style. Instead, the rests from the default style will be
4913 taken. See @inputfileref{input/test,rests.ly} for a chart of all
4916 There are no rests in Gregorian Chant notation; instead, it uses
4921 In this manual: @ref{Rests} gives a general introduction into the use of rests.
4925 @subsection Ancient clefs
4931 LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.
4933 The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the
4934 @code{\clef} command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but
4935 differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such
4936 cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs.
4937 Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an
4938 arbitrary line, as described in @ref{Clef}. The note printed to the
4939 right side of each clef in the example column denotes the @code{c'}
4940 with respect to that clef.
4942 @multitable @columnfractions .3 .3 .3 .1
4946 @b{Description} @tab
4947 @b{Supported Clefs} @tab
4951 @code{clefs-neo_mensural_c} @tab
4952 modern style mensural C clef @tab
4953 @code{neo_mensural_c1}, @code{neo_mensural_c2},
4954 @code{neo_mensural_c3}, @code{neo_mensural_c4} @tab
4955 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4956 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4957 \clef "neo_mensural_c2" c
4961 @code{clefs-petrucci_c1}
4962 @code{clefs-petrucci_c2}
4963 @code{clefs-petrucci_c3}
4964 @code{clefs-petrucci_c4}
4965 @code{clefs-petrucci_c5}
4968 petrucci style mensural C clefs, for use on different stafflines
4969 (the examples shows the 2nd staffline C clef).
4979 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4980 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4981 \clef "petrucci_c2" c
4985 @code{clefs-petrucci_f} @tab
4986 petrucci style mensural F clef @tab
4987 @code{petrucci_f} @tab
4988 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4989 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4990 \clef "petrucci_f" c
4994 @code{clefs-petrucci_g} @tab
4995 petrucci style mensural G clef @tab
4996 @code{petrucci_g} @tab
4997 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
4998 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
4999 \clef "petrucci_g" c
5003 @code{clefs-mensural_c} @tab
5004 historic style mensural C clef @tab
5005 @code{mensural_c1}, @code{mensural_c2}, @code{mensural_c3},
5006 @code{mensural_c4} @tab
5007 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5008 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5009 \clef "mensural_c2" c
5013 @code{clefs-mensural_f} @tab
5014 historic style mensural F clef @tab
5015 @code{mensural_f} @tab
5016 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5017 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5018 \clef "mensural_f" c
5022 @code{clefs-mensural_g} @tab
5023 historic style mensural G clef @tab
5024 @code{mensural_g} @tab
5025 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5026 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5027 \clef "mensural_g" c
5031 @code{clefs-vaticana_do} @tab
5032 Editio Vaticana style do clef @tab
5033 @code{vaticana_do1}, @code{vaticana_do2}, @code{vaticana_do3} @tab
5034 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5035 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
5036 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5037 \clef "vaticana_do2" c
5041 @code{clefs-vaticana_fa} @tab
5042 Editio Vaticana style fa clef @tab
5043 @code{vaticana_fa1}, @code{vaticana_fa2} @tab
5044 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5045 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
5046 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5047 \clef "vaticana_fa2" c
5051 @code{clefs-medicaea_do} @tab
5052 Editio Medicaea style do clef @tab
5053 @code{medicaea_do1}, @code{medicaea_do2}, @code{medicaea_do3} @tab
5054 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5055 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
5056 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5057 \clef "medicaea_do2" c
5061 @code{clefs-medicaea_fa} @tab
5062 Editio Medicaea style fa clef @tab
5063 @code{medicaea_fa1}, @code{medicaea_fa2} @tab
5064 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5065 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
5066 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5067 \clef "medicaea_fa2" c
5071 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do} @tab
5072 historic style hufnagel do clef @tab
5073 @code{hufnagel_do1}, @code{hufnagel_do2}, @code{hufnagel_do3} @tab
5074 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5075 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
5076 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5077 \clef "hufnagel_do2" c
5081 @code{clefs-hufnagel_fa} @tab
5082 historic style hufnagel fa clef @tab
5083 @code{hufnagel_fa1}, @code{hufnagel_fa2} @tab
5084 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5085 \property Staff.StaffSymbol \set #'line-count = #4
5086 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5087 \clef "hufnagel_fa2" c
5091 @code{clefs-hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
5092 historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef @tab
5093 @code{hufnagel_do_fa} @tab
5094 @lilypond[relative 0, notime]
5095 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t
5096 \clef "hufnagel_do_fa" c
5101 @c --- This should go somewhere else: ---
5102 @c @item modern style percussion clef (glyph: @code{clefs-percussion})
5105 @c @code{percussion}
5107 @c @lilypond{\property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "percussion" c'}
5109 @c @item modern style tab clef (glyph: @code{clefs-tab})
5114 @c @lilypond{\context Staff \outputproperty #(make-type-checker 'staff-symbol-interface) #'line-count = #6 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'transparent = ##t \clef "tab" c'}
5116 @emph{Modern style} means ``as is typeset in contemporary editions of
5117 transcribed mensural music''.
5119 @emph{Petrucci style} means ``inspired by printings published by the
5120 famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)''.
5122 @emph{Historic style} means ``as was typeset or written in historic
5123 editions (other than those of Petrucci)''.
5125 @emph{Editio XXX style} means ``as is/was printed in Editio XXX''.
5127 Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical
5128 beams, depending on which staffline it is printed.
5132 In this manual: for the percussion clef, see @ref{Percussion staves}.
5133 For the @code{TAB} clef, see @ref{Tablatures}.
5135 Internals: for modern clefs, see @ref{Clef}.
5140 @subsection Ancient flags
5146 Use the @code{flag-style} property of grob @internalsref{Stem} to
5147 select ancient flags. Besides the @code{default} flag style,
5148 only @code{mensural} style is supported:
5150 @lilypond[fragment,singleline,verbatim]
5151 \property Voice.Stem \set #'flag-style = #'mensural
5152 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #1.0
5153 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
5155 c'8 d'8 e'8 f'8 c'16 d'16 e'16 f'16 c'32 d'32 e'32 f'32 s8
5156 c''8 d''8 e''8 f''8 c''16 d''16 e''16 f''16 c''32 d''32 e''32 f''32
5159 Note that the innermost flare of each mensural flag always is
5160 vertically aligned with a staff line. If you do not like this
5161 behaviour, you can set the @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} property of
5162 grob @internalsref{Stem} to @code{##f}. Then, the vertical position
5163 of the end of each flare is different between notes on staff lines and
5164 notes between staff lines:
5166 @lilypond[fragment,singleline]
5167 \property Voice.Stem \set #'flag-style = #'mensural
5168 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #1.0
5169 \property Voice.Stem \set #'adjust-if-on-staffline = ##f
5170 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'mensural
5172 c'8 d'8 e'8 f'8 c'16 d'16 e'16 f'16 c'32 d'32 e'32 f'32 s8
5173 c''8 d''8 e''8 f''8 c''16 d''16 e''16 f''16 c''32 d''32 e''32 f''32
5176 There is no particular flag style for neo-mensural notation. Hence,
5177 when typesetting e.g. the incipit of a transcibed piece of mensural
5178 music, the default flag style should be used. There are no flags in
5179 Gregorian Chant notation.
5182 @node Ancient time signatures
5183 @subsection Ancient time signatures
5185 @cindex time signatures
5189 There is limited support for mensural time signatures. The
5190 glyphs are hard-wired to particular time fractions. In other words,
5191 to get a particular mensural signature glyph with the @code{\time n/m}
5192 command, @code{n} and @code{m} have to be chosen according to the
5198 \property Score.timing = ##f
5199 \property Score.barAlways = ##t
5200 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 4/4" }
5201 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural4/4" }
5203 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 2/2" }
5204 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural2/2" }
5206 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 6/4" }
5207 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural6/4" }
5209 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 6/8" }
5210 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural6/8" }
5212 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 3/2" }
5213 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural3/2" }
5215 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 3/4" }
5216 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural3/4" }
5218 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 9/4" }
5219 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural9/4" }
5221 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 9/8" }
5222 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural9/8" }
5224 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 4/8" }
5225 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural4/8" }
5227 s_\markup { "$\\backslash$time 2/4" }
5228 ^\markup { " " \musicglyph #"timesig-neo_mensural2/4" }
5236 \remove Staff_symbol_engraver
5237 \remove Clef_engraver
5238 \remove Time_signature_engraver
5244 Use the @code{style} property of grob @internalsref{TimeSignature} to
5245 select ancient time signatures. Supported styles are
5246 @code{neo_mensural} and @code{mensural}. The above table uses the
5247 @code{neo_mensural} style. This style is appropriate e.g. for the
5248 incipit of transcriptions of mensural pieces. The @code{mensural}
5249 style mimicks the look of historical printings of the 16th century.
5251 @inputfileref{input/test,time.ly} gives an overview over all available
5252 ancient and modern styles.
5256 Internals: @ref{Time signature} gives a general introduction into the use of time
5261 Mensural signature glyphs are mapped to time fractions in a
5262 hard-wired way. This mapping is sensible, but still arbitrary: given
5263 a mensural time signature, the time fraction represents a modern meter
5264 that usually will be a good choice when transcribing a mensural piece
5265 of music. For a particular piece of mensural music, however, the
5266 mapping may be unsatisfactory. In particular, the mapping assumes a
5267 fixed transcription of durations (e.g. brevis = half note in 2/2,
5268 i.e. 4:1). Some glyphs (such as the alternate glyph for 6/8 meter)
5269 are not at all accessible through the @code{\time} command.
5271 Mensural time signatures are supported typographically, but not yet
5272 musically. The internal representation of durations is
5273 based on a purely binary system; a ternary division such as 1 brevis =
5274 3 semibrevis (tempus perfectum) or 1 semibrevis = 3 minima (cum
5275 prolatione maiori) is not correctly handled: event times in ternary
5276 modes will be badly computed, resulting e.g. in horizontally
5277 misaligned note heads, and bar checks are likely to erroneously fail.
5279 The syntax and semantics of the @code{\time} command for mensural
5280 music is subject to change.
5283 @subsection Custodes
5288 A @emph{custos} (plural: @emph{custodes}; latin word for `guard') is a
5289 symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch
5290 of the first note(s) of the following line and thus helps the player
5291 or singer to manage line breaks during performance, thus enhancing
5292 readability of a score.
5294 Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th
5295 century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms
5296 of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant
5297 like the @emph{editio vaticana}. There are different custos glyphs
5298 used in different flavours of notational style.
5302 For typesetting custodes, just put a @internalsref{Custos_engraver} into the
5303 @internalsref{Staff} context when declaring the @code{\paper} block,
5304 as shown in the following example:
5310 \consists Custos_engraver
5311 Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
5316 The result looks like this:
5322 \property Staff.Custos \set #'style = #'mensural
5329 \consists Custos_engraver
5336 The custos glyph is selected by the @code{style} property. The styles
5337 supported are @code{vaticana}, @code{medicaea}, @code{hufnagel} and
5338 @code{mensural}. They are demonstrated in the following fragment:
5348 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-vaticana-u0" }
5352 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-medicaea-u0" }
5356 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-hufnagel-u0" }
5360 { " " \musicglyph #"custodes-mensural-u0" }
5369 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5373 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5374 \remove "Key_engraver"
5375 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5376 \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
5377 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5383 If the boolean property @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} is set to
5384 @code{#t} (which it is by default), lily typesets slightly different
5385 variants of the custos glyph, depending on whether the custos, is
5386 typeset on or between stafflines. The glyph will
5387 optically fit well into the staff, with the appendage on the right of
5388 the custos always ending at the same vertical position between two
5389 stafflines regardless of the pitch. If you set
5390 @code{adjust-if-on-staffline} to @code{#f}, then
5391 a compromise between both forms is used.
5393 Just like stems can be attached to noteheads in two directions
5394 @emph{up} and @emph{down}, each custos glyph is available with its
5395 appendage pointing either up or down. If the pitch of a custos is
5396 above a selectable position, the appendage will point downwards; if
5397 the pitch is below this position, the appendage will point upwards.
5398 Use property @code{neutral-position} to select this position. By
5399 default, it is set to @code{0}, such that the neutral position is the
5400 center of the staff. Use property @code{neutral-direction} to control
5401 what happens if a custos is typeset on the neutral position itself.
5402 By default, this property is set to @code{-1}, such that the appendage
5403 will point downwards. If set to @code{1}, the appendage will point
5404 upwards. Other values such as @code{0} are reserved for future
5405 extensions and should not be used.
5409 Internals: @internalsref{Custos}
5411 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,custos.ly}.
5415 @subsection Divisiones
5421 A @emph{divisio} (plural: @emph{divisiones}; latin word for
5422 `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure
5423 Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of
5424 @emph{divisio minima}, @emph{divisio maior} and @emph{divisio maxima}
5425 can be characterized as short, medium and long pause, somewhat like
5426 @ref{Breath marks}. The @emph{finalis} sign not only marks the end of
5427 a chant, but is also frequently used within a single
5428 antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.
5432 To use divisiones, include the file @code{gregorian-init.ly}. It
5433 contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting
5434 @code{\divisioMinima}, @code{\divisioMaior}, @code{\divisioMaxima},
5435 and @code{\finalis} at proper places in the input. Some editions use
5436 @emph{virgula} or @emph{caesura} instead of divisio minima.
5437 Therefore, @code{gregorian-init.ly} also defines @code{\virgula} and
5440 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{divisiones.ly}
5444 @cindex @code{\virgula}
5446 @cindex @code{\caesura}
5448 @cindex @code{\divisioMinima}
5449 @code{\divisioMinima},
5450 @cindex @code{\divisioMaior}
5451 @code{\divisioMaior},
5452 @cindex @code{\divisioMaxima}
5453 @code{\divisioMaxima},
5454 @cindex @code{\finalis}
5459 In this manual: @ref{Breath marks}.
5461 Internals: @internalsref{BreathingSign}, @internalsref{BreathingSignEvent},
5463 Examples: @inputfileref{input/test,divisiones.ly}
5466 @subsection Ligatures
5470 @c TODO: Should double check if I recalled things correctly when I wrote
5471 @c down the following paragraph by heart.
5473 In musical terminology, a ligature is a coherent graphical symbol that
5474 represents at least two distinct notes. Ligatures originally appeared
5475 in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation roughly since the 9th
5476 century as an allusion to the accent symbols of greek lyric poetry to
5477 denote ascending or descending sequences of notes. Both, the shape
5478 and the exact meaning of ligatures changed tremendously during the
5479 following centuries: In early notation, ligatures were used for
5480 monophonic tunes (Gregorian chant) and very soon denoted also the way
5481 of performance in the sense of articulation. With upcoming
5482 multiphony, the need for a metric system arised, since multiple voices
5483 of a piece have to be synchronized some way. New notation systems
5484 were invented that used the manifold shapes of ligatures to now denote
5485 rhythmical patterns (e.g. black mensural notation, mannered notation,
5486 ars nova). With the invention of the metric system of the white
5487 mensural notation, the need for ligatures to denote such patterns
5488 disappeared. Nevertheless, ligatures were still in use in the
5489 mensural system for a couple of decades until they finally disappeared
5490 during the late 16th / early 17th century. Still, ligatures have
5491 survived in contemporary editions of Gregorian chant such as the
5492 Editio Vaticana from 1905/08.
5496 Syntactically, ligatures are simply enclosed by @code{\[} and
5497 @code{\]}. Some ligature styles (such as Editio Vaticana) may need
5498 additional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature.
5499 By default, the @internalsref{LigatureBracket} engraver just puts a
5500 square bracket above the ligature:
5502 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim]
5504 \notes \transpose c c' {
5512 To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver
5513 has to be added to the @internalsref{Voice} context, as explained in
5514 the following subsections. Only white mensural ligatures
5515 are supported with certain limitations. Support for Editio Vaticana
5516 will be added in the future.
5519 * White mensural ligatures::
5520 * Gregorian square neumes ligatures::
5523 @node White mensural ligatures
5524 @subsubsection White mensural ligatures
5526 @cindex Mensural ligatures
5527 @cindex White mensural ligatures
5529 There is limited support for white mensural ligatures. The
5530 implementation is still experimental; it may output strange
5531 warnings or even crash in some cases or produce weird results on more
5536 To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the paper block the
5537 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver} has to be put into the
5538 @internalsref{Voice} context, and remove the
5539 @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver}:
5545 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5546 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
5551 There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a
5552 white mensural ligature. The shape is rather determined solely from
5553 the pitch and duration of the enclosed notes. While this approach may
5554 take a new user a while to get accustomed, it has the great advantage
5555 that the full musical information of the ligature is known internally.
5556 This is not only required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for
5557 automatic transcription of the ligatures.
5562 \property Score.timing = ##f
5563 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
5564 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5565 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5567 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
5569 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
5571 @lilypond[singleline]
5573 \notes \transpose c c' {
5574 \property Score.timing = ##f
5575 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
5576 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5577 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5579 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
5581 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
5586 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5587 \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
5593 Without replacing @internalsref{Ligature_bracket_engraver} with
5594 @internalsref{Mensural_ligature_engraver}, the same music transcribes
5597 @lilypond[singleline]
5599 \notes \transpose c c' {
5600 \property Score.timing = ##f
5601 \property Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
5602 \property Voice.NoteHead \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5603 \property Staff.TimeSignature \set #'style = #'neo_mensural
5605 \[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
5607 \[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]
5613 @node Gregorian square neumes ligatures
5614 @subsubsection Gregorian square neumes ligatures
5616 @cindex Square neumes ligatures
5617 @cindex Gregorian square neumes ligatures
5619 Gregorian square neumes notation (following the style of the Editio
5620 Vaticana) is under heavy development, but not yet really usable for
5621 production purposes. Core ligatures can already be typeset, but
5622 essential issues for serious typesetting are still under development,
5623 such as (among others) horizontal alignment of multiple ligatures,
5624 lyrics alignment and proper accidentals handling. Still, this section
5625 gives a sneak preview of what Gregorian chant may look like once it
5628 The following table contains the extended neumes table of the 2nd
5629 volume of the Antiphonale Romanum (@emph{Liber Hymnarius}), published
5630 1983 by the monks of Solesmes.
5632 @multitable @columnfractions .4 .2 .2 .2
5635 @b{Neuma aut@*Neumarum Elementa} @tab
5636 @b{Figurae@*Rectae} @tab
5637 @b{Figurae@*Liquescentes Auctae} @tab
5638 @b{Figurae@*Liquescentes Deminutae}
5640 @c TODO: \paper block is identical in all of the below examples.
5641 @c Therefore, it should somehow be included rather than duplicated all
5644 @c why not make identifiers in ly/engraver-init.ly? --hwn
5646 @c Because it's just used to typeset plain notes without
5647 @c a staff for demonstration purposes rather than something
5648 @c special of Gregorian chant notation. --jr
5653 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.5cm]
5654 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5656 \notes \transpose c c' {
5659 \noBreak s^\markup {"a"} \noBreak
5661 % Punctum Inclinatum
5663 \noBreak s^\markup {"b"}
5669 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5673 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5674 \remove "Key_engraver"
5675 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5676 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5677 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5678 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5682 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5683 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5684 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5685 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5691 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.5cm]
5692 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5694 \notes \transpose c c' {
5695 % Punctum Auctum Ascendens
5696 \[ \auctum \ascendens b \]
5697 \noBreak s^\markup {"c"} \noBreak
5699 % Punctum Auctum Descendens
5700 \[ \auctum \descendens b \]
5701 \noBreak s^\markup {"d"} \noBreak
5703 % Punctum Inclinatum Auctum
5704 \[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]
5705 \noBreak s^\markup {"e"}
5711 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5715 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5716 \remove "Key_engraver"
5717 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5718 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5719 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5720 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5724 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5725 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5726 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5727 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5733 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5734 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5736 \notes \transpose c c' {
5737 % Punctum Inclinatum Parvum
5738 \[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]
5739 \noBreak s^\markup {"f"}
5745 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5749 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5750 \remove "Key_engraver"
5751 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5752 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5753 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5754 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5758 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5759 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5760 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5761 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5770 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5771 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5773 \notes \transpose c c' {
5776 \noBreak s^\markup {"g"}
5782 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5786 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5787 \remove "Key_engraver"
5788 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5789 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5790 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5791 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5795 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5796 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5797 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5798 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5807 @code{3. Apostropha vel Stropha}
5809 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5810 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5812 \notes \transpose c c' {
5815 \noBreak s^\markup {"h"}
5821 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5825 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5826 \remove "Key_engraver"
5827 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5828 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5829 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5830 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5834 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5835 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5836 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5837 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5843 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5844 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5846 \notes \transpose c c' {
5848 \[ \stropha \auctum b \]
5849 \noBreak s^\markup {"i"}
5855 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5859 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5860 \remove "Key_engraver"
5861 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5862 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5863 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5864 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5868 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5869 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5870 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5871 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5881 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5882 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5884 \notes \transpose c c' {
5887 \noBreak s^\markup {"j"}
5893 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5897 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5898 \remove "Key_engraver"
5899 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5900 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5901 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5902 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5906 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5907 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5908 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5909 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5918 @code{5. Clivis vel Flexa}
5920 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5921 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5923 \notes \transpose c c' {
5932 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5936 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5937 \remove "Key_engraver"
5938 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5939 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5940 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5941 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5945 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5946 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5947 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5948 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5954 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.0cm]
5955 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5957 \notes \transpose c c' {
5958 % Clivis Aucta Descendens
5959 \[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
5960 \noBreak s^\markup {"l"} \noBreak
5962 % Clivis Aucta Ascendens
5963 \[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]
5964 \noBreak s^\markup {"m"}
5970 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
5974 \remove "Clef_engraver"
5975 \remove "Key_engraver"
5976 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
5977 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
5978 \remove "Bar_engraver"
5979 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
5983 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
5984 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
5985 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
5986 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
5992 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
5993 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
5995 \notes \transpose c c' {
5997 \[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]
6004 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6008 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6009 \remove "Key_engraver"
6010 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6011 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6012 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6013 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6017 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6018 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6019 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6020 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6027 @code{6. Podatus vel Pes}
6029 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6030 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6032 \notes \transpose c c' {
6041 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6045 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6046 \remove "Key_engraver"
6047 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6048 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6049 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6050 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6054 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6055 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6056 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6057 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6063 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=2.0cm]
6064 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6066 \notes \transpose c c' {
6067 % Pes Auctus Descendens
6068 \[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6069 \noBreak s^\markup {"p"} \noBreak
6071 % Pes Auctus Ascendens
6072 \[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]
6073 \noBreak s^\markup {"q"}
6079 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6083 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6084 \remove "Key_engraver"
6085 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6086 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6087 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6088 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6092 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6093 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6094 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6095 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6101 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6102 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6104 \notes \transpose c c' {
6106 \[ g \pes \deminutum b \]
6113 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6117 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6118 \remove "Key_engraver"
6119 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6120 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6121 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6122 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6126 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6127 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6128 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6129 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6136 @code{7. Pes Quassus}
6138 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6139 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6141 \notes \transpose c c' {
6143 \[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]
6150 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6154 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6155 \remove "Key_engraver"
6156 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6157 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6158 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6159 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6163 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6164 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6165 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6166 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6172 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6173 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6175 \notes \transpose c c' {
6176 % Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens
6177 \[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6184 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6188 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6189 \remove "Key_engraver"
6190 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6191 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6192 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6193 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6197 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6198 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6199 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6200 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6208 @code{8. Quilisma Pes}
6210 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6211 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6213 \notes \transpose c c' {
6215 \[ \quilisma g \pes b \]
6222 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6226 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6227 \remove "Key_engraver"
6228 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6229 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6230 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6231 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6235 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6236 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6237 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6238 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6244 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6245 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6247 \notes \transpose c c' {
6248 % Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens
6249 \[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6256 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6260 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6261 \remove "Key_engraver"
6262 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6263 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6264 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6265 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6269 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6270 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6271 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6272 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6280 @code{9. Podatus Initio Debilis}
6282 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6283 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6285 \notes \transpose c c' {
6286 % Pes Initio Debilis
6287 \[ \deminutum g \pes b \]
6294 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6298 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6299 \remove "Key_engraver"
6300 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6301 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6302 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6303 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6307 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6308 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6309 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6310 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6316 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6317 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6319 \notes \transpose c c' {
6320 % Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
6321 \[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6328 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6332 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6333 \remove "Key_engraver"
6334 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6335 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6336 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6337 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6341 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6342 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6343 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6344 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6354 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6355 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6357 \notes \transpose c c' {
6359 \[ a \pes b \flexa g \]
6366 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6370 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6371 \remove "Key_engraver"
6372 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6373 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6374 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6375 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6379 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6380 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6381 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6382 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6388 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6389 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6391 \notes \transpose c c' {
6392 % Torculus Auctus Descendens
6393 \[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
6400 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6404 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6405 \remove "Key_engraver"
6406 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6407 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6408 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6409 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6413 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6414 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6415 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6416 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6422 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6423 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6425 \notes \transpose c c' {
6426 % Torculus Deminutus
6427 \[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
6434 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6438 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6439 \remove "Key_engraver"
6440 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6441 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6442 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6443 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6447 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6448 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6449 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6450 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6457 @code{11. Torculus Initio Debilis}
6459 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6460 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6462 \notes \transpose c c' {
6463 % Torculus Initio Debilis
6464 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]
6471 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6475 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6476 \remove "Key_engraver"
6477 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6478 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6479 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6480 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6484 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6485 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6486 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6487 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6493 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6494 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6496 \notes \transpose c c' {
6497 % Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis
6498 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
6505 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6509 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6510 \remove "Key_engraver"
6511 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6512 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6513 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6514 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6518 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6519 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6520 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6521 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6527 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6528 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6530 \notes \transpose c c' {
6531 % Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis
6532 \[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
6539 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6543 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6544 \remove "Key_engraver"
6545 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6546 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6547 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6548 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6552 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6553 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6554 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6555 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6562 @code{12. Porrectus}
6564 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6565 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6567 \notes \transpose c c' {
6569 \[ a \flexa g \pes b \]
6576 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6580 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6581 \remove "Key_engraver"
6582 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6583 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6584 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6585 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6589 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6590 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6591 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6592 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6598 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6599 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6601 \notes \transpose c c' {
6602 % Porrectus Auctus Descendens
6603 \[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6610 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6614 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6615 \remove "Key_engraver"
6616 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6617 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6618 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6619 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6623 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6624 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6625 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6626 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6632 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6633 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6635 \notes \transpose c c' {
6636 % Porrectus Deminutus
6637 \[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]
6644 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6648 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6649 \remove "Key_engraver"
6650 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6651 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6652 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6653 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6657 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6658 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6659 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6660 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6669 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6670 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6672 \notes \transpose c c' {
6674 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]
6681 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6685 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6686 \remove "Key_engraver"
6687 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6688 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6689 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6690 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6694 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6695 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6696 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6697 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6703 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6704 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6706 \notes \transpose c c' {
6708 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]
6715 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6719 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6720 \remove "Key_engraver"
6721 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6722 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6723 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6724 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6728 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6729 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6730 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6731 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6737 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6738 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6740 \notes \transpose c c' {
6741 % Climacus Deminutus
6742 \[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]
6749 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6753 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6754 \remove "Key_engraver"
6755 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6756 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6757 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6758 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6762 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6763 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6764 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6765 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6772 @code{14. Scandicus}
6774 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6775 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6777 \notes \transpose c c' {
6779 \[ g \pes a \virga b \]
6786 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6790 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6791 \remove "Key_engraver"
6792 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6793 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6794 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6795 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6799 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6800 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6801 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6802 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6808 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6809 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6811 \notes \transpose c c' {
6812 % Scandicus Auctus Descendens
6813 \[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6820 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6824 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6825 \remove "Key_engraver"
6826 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6827 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6828 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6829 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6833 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6834 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6835 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6836 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6842 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6843 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6845 \notes \transpose c c' {
6846 % Scandicus Deminutus
6847 \[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]
6854 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6858 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6859 \remove "Key_engraver"
6860 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6861 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6862 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6863 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6867 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6868 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6869 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6870 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6879 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6880 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6882 \notes \transpose c c' {
6884 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]
6891 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6895 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6896 \remove "Key_engraver"
6897 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6898 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6899 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6900 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6904 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6905 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6906 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6907 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6913 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6914 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6916 \notes \transpose c c' {
6917 % Salicus Auctus Descendens
6918 \[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
6925 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6929 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6930 \remove "Key_engraver"
6931 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6932 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6933 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6934 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6938 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6939 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6940 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6941 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6951 @lilypond[noindent, 26pt, nofragment, linewidth=1.0cm]
6952 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
6954 \notes \transpose c c' {
6956 \[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]
6963 \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
6967 \remove "Clef_engraver"
6968 \remove "Key_engraver"
6969 StaffSymbol \set #'transparent = ##t
6970 \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
6971 \remove "Bar_engraver"
6972 minimumVerticalExtent = ##f
6976 \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
6977 \consists Vaticana_ligature_engraver
6978 NoteHead \set #'style = #'vaticana_punctum
6979 Stem \set #'transparent = ##t
6991 Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the input language for
6992 neumes does not necessarily reflect directly the typographical
6993 appearance, but is designed to solely focuse on musical meaning. For
6994 example, @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]} produces a Torculus consisting
6995 of three Punctum heads, while @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]} produces
6996 a Porrectus with a curved flexa shape and only a single Punctum head.
6997 There is no command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa shape; the
6998 decision of when to typeset a curved flexa shape is purely taken from
6999 the musical input. The idea of this approach is to separate the
7000 musical aspects of the input from the notation style of the output.
7001 This way, the same input can be reused to typeset the same music in a
7002 different style of Gregorian chant notation such as Hufnagel (also
7003 known as German gothic neumes) or Medicaea (kind of a very simple
7004 forerunner of the Editio Vaticana). As soon as Hufnagel ligature
7005 engraver and Medicaea ligature engraver will have been implemented, it
7006 will be as simple as replacing the ligature engraver in the
7007 @internalsref{Voice} context to get the desired notation style from
7010 The following table shows the code fragments that produce the
7011 ligatures in the above neumes table. The letter in the first column
7012 in each line of the below table indicates to which ligature in the
7013 above table it refers. The second column gives the name of the
7014 ligature. The third column shows the code fragment that produces this
7015 ligature, using @code{g}, @code{a} and @code{b} as example pitches.
7017 @multitable @columnfractions .1 .4 .5
7031 Punctum Inclinatum @tab
7032 @code{\[ \inclinatum b \]}
7036 Punctum Auctum Ascendens @tab
7037 @code{\[ \auctum \ascendens b \]}
7041 Punctum Auctum Descendens @tab
7042 @code{\[ \auctum \descendens b \]}
7046 Punctum Inclinatum Auctum @tab
7047 @code{\[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]}
7051 Punctum Inclinatum Parvum @tab
7052 @code{\[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]}
7057 @code{\[ \virga b \]}
7062 @code{\[ \stropha b \]}
7067 @code{\[ \stropha \auctum b \]}
7072 @code{\[ \oriscus b \]}
7076 Clivis vel Flexa @tab
7077 @code{\[ b \flexa g \]}
7081 Clivis Aucta Descendens @tab
7082 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
7086 Clivis Aucta Ascendens @tab
7087 @code{\[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]}
7092 @code{\[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
7096 Podatus vel Pes @tab
7097 @code{\[ g \pes b \]}
7101 Pes Auctus Descendens @tab
7102 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7106 Pes Auctus Ascendens @tab
7107 @code{\[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]}
7112 @code{\[ g \pes \deminutum b \]}
7117 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]}
7121 Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens @tab
7122 @code{\[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7127 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes b \]}
7131 Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens @tab
7132 @code{\[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7136 Pes Initio Debilis @tab
7137 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes b \]}
7141 Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis @tab
7142 @code{\[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7147 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]}
7151 Torculus Auctus Descendens @tab
7152 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
7156 Torculus Deminutus @tab
7157 @code{\[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
7161 Torculus Initio Debilis @tab
7162 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]}
7166 Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis @tab
7167 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]}
7171 Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis @tab
7172 @code{\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]}
7177 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]}
7181 Porrectus Auctus Descendens @tab
7182 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7186 Porrectus Deminutus @tab
7187 @code{\[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]}
7192 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]}
7196 Climacus Auctus @tab
7197 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]}
7201 Climacus Deminutus @tab
7202 @code{\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]}
7207 @code{\[ g \pes a \virga b \]}
7211 Scandicus Auctus Descendens @tab
7212 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7216 Scandicus Deminutus @tab
7217 @code{\[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]}
7222 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]}
7226 Salicus Auctus Descendens @tab
7227 @code{\[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]}
7232 @code{\[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]}
7238 The following head prefixes are supported:
7240 @cindex @code{\virga}
7242 @cindex @code{\stropha}
7244 @cindex @code{\inclinatum}
7246 @cindex @code{\auctum}
7248 @cindex @code{\descendens}
7250 @cindex @code{\ascendens}
7252 @cindex @code{\oriscus}
7254 @cindex @code{\quilisma}
7256 @cindex @code{\deminutum}
7259 Head prefixes can be accumulated, though restrictions apply. For
7260 example, either @code{\descendens} or @code{\ascendens} can be applied
7261 to a head, but not both to the same head.
7264 @cindex @code{\flexa}
7265 Two adjacent heads can be tied together with the @code{\pes} and
7266 @code{\flexa} infix commands for a rising and falling line of melody,
7271 Trigonus: apply equal spacing, regardless of pitch.
7274 @subsection Figured bass
7276 @cindex Basso continuo
7278 @c TODO: musicological blurb about FB
7282 LilyPond has limited support for figured bass:
7284 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
7286 \context Voice \notes { \clef bass dis4 c d ais}
7287 \context FiguredBass
7289 < 6 >4 < 7 >8 < 6+ [_!] >
7295 The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input
7296 mode, introduced by @code{\figures}, where you can enter bass figures
7297 as numbers, and there is a context called @internalsref{FiguredBass} that
7298 takes care of making @internalsref{BassFigure} objects.
7300 In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by
7301 @code{<} and @code{>}. The duration is entered after the @code{>>}:
7306 \context FiguredBass
7310 Accidentals are added when you append @code{-}, @code{!} and @code{+}
7317 \context FiguredBass
7318 \figures { <4- 6+ 7!> }
7321 Spaces or dashes may be inserted by using @code{_}. Brackets are
7322 introduced with @code{[} and @code{]}:
7328 \context FiguredBass
7329 \figures { < [4 6] 8 [_! 12]> }
7332 Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord
7333 support, it works much simpler. The @code{\figures} mode simply
7334 stores the numbers , and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context prints
7335 them as entered. There is no conversion to pitches, and no
7336 realizations of the bass are played in the MIDI file.
7338 Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the
7339 markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the
7340 vertical spacing of the figures may be set with @code{baseline-skip}.
7344 Internals: @internalsref{BassFigureEvent} music, @internalsref{BassFigure} object,
7345 and @internalsref{FiguredBass} context.
7349 Slash notation for alterations is not supported.
7352 @node Vaticana style contexts
7353 @subsection Vaticana style contexts
7355 @cindex VaticanaVoiceContext
7356 @cindex VaticanaStaffContext
7358 The predefined @code{VaticanaVoiceContext} and
7359 @code{VaticanaStaffContext} can be used to easily engrave a piece of
7360 Gregorian Chant in the style of the Editio Vaticana. These contexts
7361 initialize all relevant context properties and grob properties to
7362 proper values. With these contexts, you can immediately go ahead
7363 entering the chant, as the following short excerpt demonstrates:
7365 @lilypond[raggedright,verbatim,noindent]
7366 \include "gregorian-init.ly"
7369 \context VaticanaVoice {
7370 \property Score.BarNumber \set #'transparent = ##t
7372 \[ c'( c' \flexa a \] \[ a \flexa \deminutum g) \] f \divisioMinima
7373 \[ f( \pes a c' c' \pes d') \] c' \divisioMinima \break
7374 \[ c'( c' \flexa a \] \[ a \flexa \deminutum g) \] f \divisioMinima
7377 \lyricsto "" \new LyricsVoice \lyrics {
7378 San- ctus, San- ctus, San- ctus
7384 @node Contemporary notation
7385 @section Contemporary notation
7387 In the 20th century, composers have greatly expanded the musical
7388 vocabulary. With this expansion, many innovations in musical notation
7389 have been tried. The book by Stone (1980) gives a comprehensive
7390 overview (see @ref{Literature list}). In general, the use of new,
7391 innovative notation makes a piece harder to understand and perform and
7392 its use should therefore be avoided if possible. For this reason,
7393 support for contemporary notation in LilyPond is limited.
7402 @subsection Clusters
7406 In musical terminology, a @emph{cluster} denotes a range of
7407 simultaneously sounding pitches that may change over time. The set of
7408 available pitches to apply usually depends on the accoustic source.
7409 Thus, in piano music, a cluster typically consists of a continous range
7410 of the semitones as provided by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic
7411 scale. In choral music, each singer of the choir typically may sing an
7412 arbitrary pitch within the cluster's range that is not bound to any
7413 diatonic, chromatic or other scale. In electronic music, a cluster
7414 (theoretically) may even cover a continuous range of pitches, thus
7415 resulting in coloured noise, such as pink noise.
7417 Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by
7418 engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of
7419 notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and
7420 duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by the
7421 shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical extent of
7422 the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster geometrically
7423 describes the development of a range of pitches (vertical extent) over
7424 time (horizontal extent). Still, the geometrical shape of a cluster
7425 covers the area in wich any single pitch contained in the cluster would
7426 be notated as an ordinary note. From this point of view, it is
7427 reasonable to specify a cluster as the envelope of a set of notes.
7431 A cluster is engraved as the envelope of a set of
7432 cluster-notes. Cluster notes are created by applying the function
7433 @code{notes-to-clusters} to a sequence of chords, e.g.
7435 @lilypond[relative 1,verbatim]
7436 \apply #notes-to-clusters { <c e > <b f'> }
7439 The following example (from
7440 @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly}) shows what the result
7443 @lilypondfile[notexidoc]{cluster.ly}
7445 By default, @internalsref{Cluster_spanner_engraver} is in the
7446 @internalsref{Voice} context. This allows putting ordinary notes and
7447 clusters together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In such a
7448 case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between
7449 ordinary notes and clusters.
7453 Internals: @internalsref{ClusterSpanner},
7454 @internalsref{ClusterSpannerBeacon},
7455 @internalsref{Cluster_spanner_engraver}, and
7456 @internalsref{ClusterNoteEvent}.
7458 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,cluster.ly}.
7462 Music expressions like @code{<< @{ g8 e8 @} a4 >>} are not printed
7463 accurately. Use @code{<g a>8 <e a>8} instead.
7468 @subsection Fermatas
7474 Contemporary music notation frequently uses special fermata symbols to
7475 indicate fermatas of differing lengths.
7479 The following are supported
7481 @lilypond[singleline]
7483 << \addlyrics \notes {
7503 \context Lyrics \lyrics {
7504 "shortfermata" "fermata" "longfermata" "verylongfermata"
7509 See @ref{Articulations} for general instructions how to apply scripts
7510 such as fermatas to a @code{\notes@{@}} block.
7513 @node Special notation
7514 @section Special notation
7518 * Easy Notation note heads::
7522 @subsection Balloon help
7524 Elements of notation can be marked and named with the help of a square
7525 balloon. The primary purpose of this feature is to explain notation.
7527 The following example demonstrates its use.
7529 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,singleline,relative 1]
7532 #(add-balloon-text 'NoteHead "heads, or tails?"
7538 The function @code{add-balloon-text} takes the name of a grob, the
7539 label to print and where to put the label relative to the object. In
7540 the above example, the text ``heads or tails?'' ends 3 spaces below
7544 @cindex notation, explaining
7548 Internals: @internalsref{text-balloon-interface}
7550 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,balloon.ly}
7552 @node Easy Notation note heads
7553 @subsection Easy Notation note heads
7555 @cindex easy notation
7558 The `easy play' note head includes a note name inside the head. It is
7559 used in music aimed at beginners:
7561 @lilypond[singleline,verbatim,26pt]
7563 \notes { c'2 e'4 f' | g'1 }
7564 \paper { \translator { \EasyNotation } }
7568 The @code{EasyNotation} variable overrides a @internalsref{Score}
7569 context. To make the letters readable, it has to be printed in a
7570 large font size. To print with a larger font, see @ref{Font Size}.
7575 If you view the result with Xdvi, then staff lines may show through
7576 the letters. Printing the PostScript file obtained does produce the
7582 @section Tuning output
7584 There are situations where default layout decisions are not
7585 sufficient. In this section we discuss ways to override these
7588 Formatting is internally done by manipulating so called objects
7589 (graphic objects). Each object carries with it a set of properties
7590 (object or layout properties) specific to that object. For example, a
7591 stem object has properties that specify its direction, length and
7594 The most direct way of tuning the output is by altering the values of
7595 these properties. There are two ways of doing that: first, you can
7596 temporarily change the definition of one type of object, thus
7597 affecting a whole set of objects. Second, you can select one specific
7598 object, and set a layout property in that object.
7600 Do not confuse layout properties with translation
7601 properties. Translation properties always use a mixed caps style
7602 naming, and are manipulated using @code{\property}:
7604 \property Context.propertyName = @var{value}
7607 Layout properties are use Scheme style variable naming, i.e. lower
7608 case words separated with dashes. They are symbols, and should always
7609 be quoted using @code{#'}. For example, this could be an imaginary
7610 layout property name:
7612 #'layout-property-name
7617 The introduction of the @ref{Technical manual} gives a more in-depth
7618 treatment of the difference between translation and layout.
7622 * Constructing a tweak::
7630 @node Tuning objects
7631 @subsection Tuning objects
7633 @cindex object description
7635 The definition of an object is a list of default object
7636 properties. For example, the definition of the Stem object (available
7637 in @file{scm/define-grobs.scm}), includes the following definitions
7638 for @internalsref{Stem}:
7642 (beamed-lengths . (3.5 3.5 3.5 4.5 5.0))
7643 (Y-extent-callback . ,Stem::height)
7648 Adding variables on top of this existing definition overrides the
7649 system default, and alters the resulting appearance of the layout
7655 Changing a variable for only one object is commonly achieved with
7659 \once \property @var{context}.@var{objectname}
7660 \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
7662 Here @var{symbol} is a Scheme expression of symbol type, @var{context}
7663 and @var{objectname} is a string and @var{value} is a Scheme expression.
7664 This command applies a setting only during one moment in the score.
7666 In the following example, only one @internalsref{Stem} object is
7667 changed from its original setting:
7669 @lilypond[verbatim, fragment, relative=1]
7671 \once \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4
7675 @cindex @code{\once}
7677 For changing more objects, the same command, without @code{\once} can
7680 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \override @var{symbol} = @var{value}
7682 This command adds @code{@var{symbol} = @var{value}} to the definition
7683 of @var{objectname} in the context @var{context}, and this definition
7684 stays in place until it is removed.
7686 An existing definition may be removed by the following command:
7689 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \revert @var{symbol}
7692 All @code{\override} and @code{\revert} commands should be balanced.
7693 The @code{\set} shorthand performs a revert followed by an override,
7694 and is often more convenient to use
7697 \property @var{context}.@var{objectname} \set @var{symbol} = @var{value}
7701 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
7702 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \override #'thickness = #4.0
7704 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \revert #'thickness
7708 The following example gives exactly the same result as the previous
7709 one (assuming the system default for stem thickness is 1.3):
7711 @lilypond[verbatim,quote]
7712 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
7714 c'4 \property Voice.Stem \set #'thickness = #1.3
7718 Reverting a setting which was not set in the first place has no
7719 effect. However, if the setting was set as a system default, this may
7720 remove the default value, and this may give surprising results,
7721 including crashes. In other words, @code{\override} and
7722 @code{\revert} must be carefully balanced. The following are examples
7723 of correct nesting of @code{\override}, @code{\set}, @code{\revert}:
7727 a clumsy but correct form:
7729 \override \revert \override \revert \override \revert
7733 shorter version of the same:
7735 \override \set \set \revert
7739 a short form, using only @code{\set}. This requires you to know the
7742 \set \set \set \set @var{to default value}
7746 if there is no default (i.e. by default, the object property is unset),
7749 \set \set \set \revert
7753 The object description is an Scheme association list. Since a Scheme
7754 list is a singly linked list, we can treat it as a stack, and
7755 @code{\override} and @code{\revert} are push and pop operations. The
7756 association list is stored in a normal context property, hence
7758 \property Voice.NoteHead = #'()
7760 will effectively erase @internalsref{NoteHead}s from the current
7761 @internalsref{Voice}. Typically, this will blank the object. However,
7762 this mechanism should not be used: it may cause crashes or other
7767 Internals: @internalsref{OverrideProperty}, @internalsref{RevertProperty},
7768 @internalsref{PropertySet}, @internalsref{All-backend-properties}, and
7769 @internalsref{All-layout-objects}.
7774 The backend is not very strict in type-checking object properties.
7775 Cyclic references in Scheme values for properties cause hangs and/or
7776 crashes. Reverting properties that are system defaults may also lead
7779 A property tweak of modifies a local copy of the object definition.
7780 After such a tweak, the definition is independent of the objects in
7781 enclosing contexts. For example
7783 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment]
7784 \property Voice.Stem \set #'direction = #1
7786 \property Staff.Stem \set #'thickness = #4.0
7791 In this fragment, @code{direction} is tweaked. As a result, the
7792 current @internalsref{Voice} gets a private version of the
7793 @internalsref{Stem} object. The following tweak modifies the
7794 definition at @internalsref{Staff} level. Since it a different
7795 definition, the thickness of the first @code{b'16} is unaffected. For
7796 the third note, a new Voice is created, which inherits the new
7797 definition, including the changed thickness, but excluding the new
7803 * Constructing a tweak::
7809 @node Constructing a tweak
7810 @subsection Constructing a tweak
7813 @cindex internal documentation
7814 @cindex finding graphical objects
7815 @cindex graphical object descriptions
7817 @cindex @code{\override}
7819 @cindex internal documentation
7823 Three pieces of information are required to use @code{\override} and
7824 @code{\set}: the name of the layout object, the context and the name
7825 of the property. We demonstrate how to glean this information from
7826 the notation manual and the generated documentation.
7828 The generated documentation is a set of HTML pages which should be
7829 included if you installed a binary distribution, typically in
7830 @file{/usr/share/doc/lilypond}. They are also available on the web:
7831 go to the @uref{http://lilypond.org,LilyPond website}, click
7832 ``Documentation'', select the correct version, and click then
7833 ``Program reference.'' It is advisable to bookmark the local HTML
7834 files. They will load faster than the ones on the web. If you use the
7835 version from the web, you must check whether the documentation matches
7836 the program version: it is generated from the definitions that the
7837 program uses, and therefore it is strongly tied to the LilyPond
7841 @c [TODO: revise for new site.]
7843 Suppose we want to move the fingering indication in the fragment below:
7845 @lilypond[relative=2,verbatim]
7851 If you visit the documentation of @code{Fingering} (in @ref{Fingering
7852 instructions}), you will notice that there is written:
7857 Internals: @internalsref{FingerEvent} and @internalsref{Fingering}.
7864 In other words, the fingerings once entered, are internally stored as
7865 @code{FingerEvent} music objects. When printed, a @code{Fingering}
7866 layout object is created for every @code{FingerEvent}.
7868 The Fingering object has a number of different functions, and each of
7869 those is captured in an interface. The interfaces are listed under
7870 @internalsref{Fingering} in the program reference.
7874 The @code{Fingering} object has a fixed size
7875 (@internalsref{item-interface}), the symbol is a piece of text
7876 (@internalsref{text-interface}), whose font can be set
7877 (@internalsref{font-interface}). It is centered horizontally
7878 (@internalsref{self-alignment-interface}), it is placed next to other
7879 objects (@internalsref{side-position-interface}) vertically, and its
7880 placement is coordinated with other scripts
7881 (@internalsref{text-script-interface}). It also has the standard
7882 @internalsref{grob-interface} (grob stands for Graphical object)
7884 @cindex graphical object
7885 @cindex layout object
7886 @cindex object, layout
7887 with all the variables that come with
7888 it. Finally, it denotes a fingering instruction, so it has
7889 @internalsref{finger-interface}.
7891 For the vertical placement, we have to look under
7892 @code{side-position-interface}:
7894 @code{side-position-interface}
7896 Position a victim object (this one) next to other objects (the
7897 support). In this case, the property @code{direction} signifies where to put the
7898 victim object relative to the support (left or right, up or down?)
7903 below this description, the variable @code{padding} is described as
7907 (dimension, in staff space)
7909 add this much extra space between objects that are next to each
7910 other. Default value: @code{0.6}
7914 By increasing the value of @code{padding}, we can move away the
7915 fingering. The following command inserts 3 staff spaces of white
7916 between the note and the fingering:
7918 \once \property Voice.Fingering \set #'padding = #3
7921 Inserting this command before the Fingering object is created,
7922 i.e. before @code{c2}, yields the following result:
7924 @lilypond[relative=2,fragment,verbatim]
7925 \once \property Voice.Fingering
7932 The context name @code{Voice} in the example above can be determined
7933 as follows. In the documentation for @internalsref{Fingering}, it says
7935 Fingering grobs are created by: @internalsref{Fingering_engraver}
7938 Clicking @code{Fingering_engraver} shows the documentation of
7939 the module responsible for interpreting the fingering instructions and
7940 translating them to a @code{Fingering} object. Such a module is called
7941 an @emph{engraver}. The documentation of the @code{Fingering_engraver}
7944 Fingering_engraver is part of contexts: Voice
7946 so tuning the settings for Fingering should be done with
7948 \property Voice.Fingering \set @dots{}
7951 Of course, the tweak may also done in a larger context than
7952 @code{Voice}, for example, @internalsref{Staff} or
7953 @internalsref{Score}.
7957 Internals: the program reference also contains alphabetical lists of
7958 @internalsref{Contexts}, @internalsref{All-layout-objects} and
7959 @internalsref{Music-expressions}, so you can also find which objects
7960 to tweak by browsing the internals document.
7964 @subsection Applyoutput
7966 The most versatile way of tuning an object is @code{\applyoutput}. Its
7969 \applyoutput @var{proc}
7973 where @var{proc} is a Scheme function, taking three arguments.
7975 When interpreted, the function @var{proc} is called for every layout
7976 object found in the context, with the following arguments:
7978 @item the layout object itself,
7979 @item the context where the layout object was created, and
7980 @item the context where @code{\applyoutput} is processed.
7984 In addition, the cause of the layout object, i.e. the music
7985 expression or object that was responsible for creating it, is in the
7986 object property @code{cause}. For example, for a note head, this is a
7987 @internalsref{NoteHead} event, and for a @internalsref{Stem} object,
7988 this is a @internalsref{NoteHead} object.
7990 Here is a simple example of @code{\applyoutput}; it blanks note-heads on the
7993 (define (blanker grob grob-origin context)
7994 (if (and (memq (ly:get-grob-property grob 'interfaces)
7995 note-head-interface)
7996 (eq? (ly:get-grob-property grob 'staff-position) 0))
7998 (ly:set-grob-property! grob 'transparent #t)))
8003 @node Font selection
8004 @subsection Font selection
8006 The most common thing to change about the appearance of fonts is their
8007 size. The font size of any context can be easily changed by setting
8008 the @code{fontSize} property for that context. Its value is a number:
8009 negative numbers make the font smaller, positive numbers larger. An
8010 example is given below:
8012 @lilypond[fragment,relative=1,verbatim,quote]
8013 c4 c4 \property Voice.fontSize = #-1
8016 This command will set @code{font-size} (see below), and does
8017 not change the size of variable symbols, such as beams or slurs.
8019 One of the uses of @code{fontSize} is to get smaller symbols for cue
8020 notes. An elaborate example of those is in
8021 @inputfileref{input/test,cue-notes.ly}.
8023 @cindex magnification
8026 The font used for printing a object can be selected by setting
8027 @code{font-name}, e.g.
8029 \property Staff.TimeSignature
8030 \set #'font-name = #"cmr17"
8034 Any font can be used, as long as it is available to @TeX{}. Possible
8035 fonts include foreign fonts or fonts that do not belong to the
8036 Computer Modern font family. The size of fonts selected in this way
8037 can be changed with the @code{font-magnification} property. For
8038 example, @code{2.0} blows up all letters by a factor 2 in both
8042 @cindex font magnification
8044 Font selection for the standard fonts, @TeX{}'s Computer Modern fonts,
8045 can also be adjusted with a more fine-grained mechanism. By setting
8046 the object properties described below, you can select a different font;
8047 all three mechanisms work for every object that supports
8048 @code{font-interface}:
8053 is a symbol indicating the general class of the typeface. Supported are
8054 @code{roman} (Computer Modern), @code{braces} (for piano staff
8055 braces), @code{music} (the standard music font, including ancient
8056 glyphs), @code{dynamic} (for dynamic signs) and @code{typewriter}.
8059 is a symbol indicating the shape of the font, there are typically several
8060 font shapes available for each font family. Choices are @code{italic},
8061 @code{caps} and @code{upright}.
8064 is a symbol indicating the series of the font. There are typically several
8065 font series for each font family and shape. Choices are @code{medium}
8070 For any of these properties, the value @code{*} (i.e. the symbol
8071 @code{*}, entered as @code{#'*}), acts as a wildcard. This can be used
8072 to override default setting, which are always present. For example:
8074 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-series = #'bold
8075 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-family = #'typewriter
8076 \property Lyrics . LyricText \override #'font-shape = #'*
8079 @cindex @code{font-style}
8081 The font size is set by modifying the @code{font-size} property. Its
8082 value is a number indicating the size relative to the standard size.
8083 Each step up is an increase of approximately 12% of the font size. Six
8084 steps is exactly a factor two. The Scheme function @code{magstep}
8085 converts a @code{font-size} number to a scaling factor.
8087 LilyPond has fonts in different design sizes: the music fonts for
8088 smaller sizes are chubbier, while the text fonts are relatively wider.
8089 Font size changes are achieved by scaling the design size that is
8090 closest to the desired size.
8092 The @code{font-size} mechanism does not work for fonts selected
8093 through @code{font-name}. These may be scaled with
8094 @code{font-magnification}.
8098 The following commands set @code{fontSize} for the current voice.
8100 @cindex @code{\tiny}
8102 @cindex @code{\small}
8104 @cindex @code{\normalsize}
8109 Init files: @file{ly/declarations-init.ly} contains hints how new
8110 fonts may be added to LilyPond.
8114 There is no style sheet provided for other fonts besides the @TeX{}
8115 Computer Modern family.
8117 @cindex font selection
8118 @cindex font magnification
8119 @cindex @code{font-interface}
8123 @subsection Text markup
8128 @cindex typeset text
8130 LilyPond has an internal mechanism to typeset texts. You can access it
8131 with the keyword @code{\markup}. Within markup mode, you can enter texts
8132 similar to lyrics: simply enter them, surrounded by spaces:
8135 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
8136 c1^\markup { hello }
8137 c1_\markup { hi there }
8138 c1^\markup { hi \bold there, is \italic anyone home? }
8141 @cindex font switching
8143 The markup in the example demonstrates font switching commands. The
8144 command @code{\bold} and @code{\italic} only apply to the first
8145 following word; enclose a set of texts with braces to apply a command
8148 \markup @{ \bold @{ hi there @} @}
8152 For clarity, you can also do this for single arguments, e.g.
8154 \markup @{ is \italic @{ anyone @} home @}
8157 @cindex font size, texts
8159 The following size commands set absolute sizes:
8161 @cindex @code{\teeny}
8162 @cindex @code{\tiny}
8163 @cindex @code{\small}
8164 @cindex @code{\large}
8165 @cindex @code{\huge}
8175 You can also make letter larger or smaller relative to their neighbors,
8176 with the commands @code{\larger} and @code{\smaller}.
8180 @cindex font style, for texts
8181 @cindex @code{\bold}
8182 @cindex @code{\dynamic}
8183 @cindex @code{\number}
8184 @cindex @code{\italic}
8186 The following font change commands are defined:
8189 changes to the font used in dynamic signs. This font does not
8190 contain all characters of the alphabet, so when producing ``piu f'',
8191 the ``piu'' should be done in a different font.
8195 changes to the font used in time signatures. It only contains
8196 numbers and a few punctuation marks.
8198 changes @code{font-shape} to @code{italic}.
8200 changes @code{font-series} to @code{bold}.
8203 @cindex raising text
8204 @cindex lowering text
8206 @cindex translating text
8209 @cindex @code{\super}
8211 Raising and lowering texts can be done with @code{\super} and
8214 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
8215 c1^\markup { E "=" mc \super "2" }
8218 @cindex @code{\raise}
8220 If you want to give an explicit amount for lowering or raising, use
8221 @code{\raise}. This command takes a Scheme valued first argument, and
8222 a markup object as second argument:
8224 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1,quote]
8225 c1^\markup { C \small \raise #1.0 \bold { "9/7+" }}
8227 The argument to @code{\raise} is the vertical displacement amount,
8228 measured in (global) staff spaces. @code{\raise} and @code{\super}
8229 raise objects in relation to their surrounding markups. They cannot be
8230 used to move a single text up or down, when it is above or below a
8231 note, since the mechanism that positions it next to the note cancels
8232 any vertical shift. For vertical positioning, use the @code{padding}
8233 and/or @code{extra-offset} properties.
8235 Other commands taking single arguments include
8238 @item \bracket, \hbracket
8239 Bracket the argument markup with normal and horizontal brackets
8243 @cindex @code{\musicglyph}
8244 This is converted to a musical symbol, e.g. @code{\musicglyph
8245 #"accidentals-0"} will select the natural sign from the music font.
8246 See @ref{The Feta font} for a complete listing of the possible glyphs.
8249 This produces a single character, e.g. @code{\char #65} produces the
8252 @item \note @var{duration} @var{dir}
8253 @cindex @code{\note}
8255 This produces a note with a stem pointing in @var{dir} direction, with
8256 the @var{duration} for the note head type and augmentation dots. For
8257 example, @code{\note #"4." #-0.75} creates a dotted quarter note, with
8258 a shortened down stem.
8260 @item \hspace #@var{amount}
8261 @cindex @code{\hspace}
8262 This produces a invisible object taking horizontal space.
8264 \markup @{ A \hspace #2.0 B @}
8266 will put extra space between A and B, on top of the space that is
8267 normally inserted before elements on a line.
8269 @item \fontsize #@var{size}
8270 @cindex @code{\fontsize}
8271 This sets the relative font size, eg.
8273 A \fontsize #2 @{ B C @} D
8277 This will enlarge the B and the C by two steps.
8278 @item \translate #(cons @var{x} @var{y})
8280 This translates an object. Its first argument is a cons of numbers
8282 A \translate #(cons 2 -3) @{ B C @} D
8284 This moves `B C' 2 spaces to the right, and 3 down, relative to its
8285 surroundings. This command cannot be used to move isolated scripts
8286 vertically, for the same reason that @code{\raise} cannot be used for
8289 @item \magnify #@var{mag}
8290 @cindex @code{\magnify}
8291 This sets the font magnification for the its argument. In the following
8292 example, the middle A will be 10% larger:
8294 A \magnify #1.1 @{ A @} A
8298 @item \override #(@var{key} . @var{value})
8299 @cindex @code{\override}
8300 This overrides a formatting property for its argument. The argument
8301 should be a key/value pair, e.g.
8303 m \override #'(font-family . math) m m
8307 In markup mode you can compose expressions, similar to mathematical
8308 expressions, XML documents and music expressions. The braces group
8309 notes into horizontal lines. Other types of lists also exist: you can
8310 stack expressions grouped with @code{<}, and @code{>} vertically with
8311 the command @code{\column}. Similarly, @code{\center} aligns texts by
8314 @lilypond[verbatim,fragment,relative=1]
8315 c1^\markup { \column < a bbbb c > }
8316 c1^\markup { \center < a bbbb c > }
8317 c1^\markup { \line < a b c > }
8321 Markups can be stored in variables, and these variables
8322 may be attached to notes, like
8324 allegro = \markup { \bold \large { Allegro } }
8325 \notes { a^\allegro b c d }
8328 The markup mechanism is extensible. Refer to
8329 @file{scm/new-markup.scm} for more information.
8332 Some objects have alignment procedures of their own, which cancel out
8333 any effects of alignments applied to their markup arguments as a
8334 whole. For example, the @internalsref{RehearsalMark} is horizontally
8335 centered, so using @code{\mark \markup @{ \left-align .. @}} has no
8336 effect. Similarly, whole texts over notes cannot be moved vertically
8337 with @code{\raise}. For moving and aligning complete objects, grob
8338 properties should be used.
8342 Internals: @internalsref{Markup-functions} contains a complete list of
8343 all markup commands.
8345 Init files: @file{scm/new-markup.scm}.
8352 Text layout is ultimately done by @TeX{}, which does kerning of
8353 letters. LilyPond does not account for kerning, so texts will be
8354 spaced slightly too wide.
8356 Syntax errors for markup mode are confusing.
8358 Markup texts cannot be used in the titling of the @code{\header}
8359 field. Titles are made by La@TeX{}, so La@TeX{} commands should be used
8368 @section Global layout
8370 The global layout determined by three factors: the page layout, the
8371 line breaks and the spacing. These all influence each other. The
8372 choice of spacing determines how densely each system of music is set,
8373 which influences where line breaks breaks are chosen, and thus
8374 ultimately how many pages a piece of music takes. This section
8375 explains how to tune the algorithm for spacing.
8377 Globally spoken, this procedure happens in three steps: first,
8378 flexible distances (``springs'') are chosen, based on durations. All
8379 possible line breaking combination are tried, and the one with the
8380 best results---a layout that has uniform density and requires as
8381 little stretching or cramping as possible---is chosen. When the score
8382 is processed by @TeX{}, each page is filled with systems, and page breaks
8383 are chosen whenever the page gets full.
8388 * Vertical spacing::
8389 * Horizontal spacing::
8396 @node Vertical spacing
8397 @subsection Vertical spacing
8399 @cindex vertical spacing
8400 @cindex distance between staves
8401 @cindex staff distance
8402 @cindex between staves, distance
8403 @cindex staffs per page
8404 @cindex space between staves
8406 The height of each system is determined automatically by LilyPond, to
8407 keep systems from bumping into each other, some minimum distances are
8408 set. By changing these, you can put staves closer together, and thus
8409 put more systems onto one page.
8411 Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make
8412 staves maintain a distance, their vertical size is padded. This is
8413 done with the property @code{minimumVerticalExtent}. It takes a pair
8414 of numbers, so if you want to make it smaller from its, then you could
8417 \property Staff.minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-4 . 4)
8419 This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 4 staff spaces on
8420 either side of the center staff line. The argument of
8421 @code{minimumVerticalExtent} is interpreted as an interval, where the
8422 center line is the 0, so the first number is generally negative. The
8423 staff can be made larger at the bottom by setting it to @code{(-6
8426 The piano staves are handled a little differently: to make cross-staff
8427 beaming work correctly, it is necessary that the distance between staves
8428 is fixed beforehand. This is also done with a
8429 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object, created in
8430 @internalsref{PianoStaff}. In this object the distance between the
8431 staves is fixed by setting @code{forced-distance}. If you want to
8432 override this, use a @code{\translator} block as follows:
8436 VerticalAlignment \override #'forced-distance = #9
8439 This would bring the staves together at a distance of 9 staff spaces,
8440 measured from the center line of each staff.
8444 Internals: Vertical alignment of staves is handled by the
8445 @internalsref{VerticalAlignment} object.
8449 @node Horizontal spacing
8450 @subsection Horizontal Spacing
8452 The spacing engine translates differences in durations into
8453 stretchable distances (``springs'') of differing lengths. Longer
8454 durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest
8455 durations get a fixed amount of space (which is controlled by
8456 @code{shortest-duration-space} in the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} object).
8457 The longer the duration, the more space it gets: doubling a
8458 duration adds a fixed amount (this amount is controlled by
8459 @code{spacing-increment}) of space to the note.
8461 For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter and
8462 8th notes, the eighth note is followed by 1 note head width (NHW).
8463 The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by 3 NHW, etc.
8464 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=1] c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8
8468 Normally, @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to 1.2, which is the
8469 width of a note head, and @code{shortest-duration-space} is set to
8470 2.0, meaning that the shortest note gets 2 NHW (i.e. 2 times
8471 @code{shortest-duration-space}) of space. For normal notes, this space
8472 is always counted from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest
8473 notes are generally followed by one NHW of space.
8475 If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single
8476 32th note to a score that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the
8477 entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a 16th, but a 32nd,
8478 thus adding 1 NHW to every note. To prevent this, the
8479 shortest duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score,
8480 but the most commonly found shortest note. Notes that are even
8481 shorter this are followed by a space that is proportional to their
8482 duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add
8483 only a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by
8486 @lilypond[fragment, verbatim, relative=2]
8487 c2 c4. c8 c4. c16[ c] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4
8490 The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every
8491 measure, the shortest duration is determined. The most common short
8492 duration, is taken as the basis for the spacing, with the stipulation
8493 that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than
8494 1/8th note. The shortest duration is printed when you run lilypond
8495 with @code{--verbose}. These durations may also be customized. If you
8496 set the @code{common-shortest-duration} in
8497 @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, then this sets the base duration for
8498 spacing. The maximum duration for this base (normally 1/8th), is set
8499 through @code{base-shortest-duration}.
8501 @cindex @code{common-shortest-duration}
8502 @cindex @code{base-shortest-duration}
8503 @cindex @code{stem-spacing-correction}
8504 @cindex @code{spacing}
8506 In the introduction it was explained that stem directions influence
8507 spacing. This is controlled with @code{stem-spacing-correction}
8508 property in @internalsref{NoteSpacing}, which are generated for every
8509 @internalsref{Voice} context. The @code{StaffSpacing} object
8510 (generated at @internalsref{Staff} context) contains the same property
8511 for controlling the stem/barline spacing. The following example
8512 shows these corrections, once with default settings, and once with
8513 exaggerated corrections:
8519 \property Staff.NoteSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
8521 \property Staff.StaffSpacing \override #'stem-spacing-correction
8526 \paper { raggedright = ##t } }
8529 @cindex SpacingSpanner, overriding properties
8531 Properties of the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} must be overridden
8532 from the @code{\paper} block, since the @internalsref{SpacingSpanner} is
8533 created before any @code{\property} statements are interpreted.
8535 \paper @{ \translator @{
8537 SpacingSpanner \override #'spacing-increment = #3.0
8544 Internals: @internalsref{SpacingSpanner}, @internalsref{NoteSpacing},
8545 @internalsref{StaffSpacing}, @internalsref{SeparationItem}, and
8546 @internalsref{SeparatingGroupSpanner}.
8550 Spacing is determined on a score wide basis. If you have a score that
8551 changes its character (measured in durations) halfway during the
8552 score, the part containing the longer durations will be spaced too
8555 There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing.
8560 @subsection Font size
8561 @cindex font size, setting
8562 @cindex staff size, setting
8563 @cindex @code{paper} file
8565 The Feta font provides musical symbols at eight seven different
8566 sizes. Each font is tuned for a different staff size: at smaller sizes
8567 the font gets heavier, to match the relatively heavier staff lines.
8568 The recommended font sizes are listed in the following table:
8570 @multitable @columnfractions .25 .25 .25 .25
8573 @tab @b{staff height (pt)}
8574 @tab @b{staff height (mm)}
8616 @c modern rental material ?
8620 These fonts are available in any sizes. The context property
8621 @code{fontSize} and the layout property @code{staff-space} (in
8622 @internalsref{StaffSymbol}) can be used to tune size for individual
8623 staffs. The size of individual staffs are relative to the global size,
8624 which can be set in the following manner:
8627 #(set-global-staff-size 14)
8630 This sets the global default size to 14pt staff height, and scales all
8636 @subsection Line breaking
8639 @cindex breaking lines
8641 Line breaks are normally computed automatically. They are chosen such
8642 that lines look neither cramped nor loose, and that consecutive lines
8643 have similar density.
8645 Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can
8646 do this by specifying @code{\break}. This will force a line break at
8647 this point. Line breaks can only occur at places where there are bar
8648 lines. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line,
8649 you can force an invisible bar line by entering @code{\bar
8650 ""}. Similarly, @code{\noBreak} forbids a line break at a
8654 @cindex regular line breaks
8655 @cindex four bar music.
8657 For linebreaks at regular intervals use @code{\break} separated by
8658 skips and repeated with @code{\repeat}:
8660 << \repeat unfold 7 @{
8661 s1 \noBreak s1 \noBreak
8662 s1 \noBreak s1 \break @}
8663 @emph{the real music}
8668 This makes the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) be broken every
8669 4 measures, and only there.
8673 @code{\break}, @code{\noBreak}
8674 @cindex @code{\break}
8675 @cindex @code{\noBreak}
8679 Internals: @internalsref{BreakEvent}.
8683 @subsection Page layout
8686 @cindex breaking pages
8688 @cindex @code{indent}
8689 @cindex @code{linewidth}
8691 The most basic settings influencing the spacing are @code{indent} and
8692 @code{linewidth}. They are set in the @code{\paper} block. They
8693 control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of
8696 If @code{raggedright} is set to true in the @code{\paper}
8697 block, then the lines are justified at their natural length. This
8698 useful for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural
8702 @cindex vertical spacing
8704 The page layout process happens outside the LilyPond formatting
8705 engine: variables controlling page layout are passed to the output,
8706 and are further interpreted by @code{lilypond} wrapper program. It
8707 responds to the following variables in the @code{\paper} block. The
8708 variable @code{textheight} sets the total height of the music on each
8709 page. The spacing between systems is controlled with
8710 @code{interscoreline}, its default is 16pt. The distance between the
8711 score lines will stretch in order to fill the full page
8712 @code{interscorelinefill} is set to a positive number. In that case
8713 @code{interscoreline} specifies the minimum spacing.
8715 @cindex @code{textheight}
8716 @cindex @code{interscoreline}
8717 @cindex @code{interscorelinefill}
8719 If the variable @code{lastpagefill} is defined,
8720 @c fixme: this should only be done if lastpagefill == #t
8721 systems are evenly distributed vertically on the last page. This
8722 might produce ugly results in case there are not enough systems on the
8723 last page. The @command{lilypond-book} command ignores
8724 @code{lastpagefill}. See @ref{lilypond-book manual} for more
8727 @cindex @code{lastpagefill}
8729 Page breaks are normally computed by @TeX{}, so they are not under
8730 direct control of LilyPond. However, you can insert a commands into
8731 the @file{.tex} output to instruct @TeX{} where to break pages. This
8732 is done by setting the @code{between-systems-strings} on the
8733 @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn} where the system is broken.
8734 An example is shown in @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}.
8735 The predefined command @code{\newpage} also does this.
8739 @cindex @code{papersize}
8741 To change the paper size, use the following Scheme code:
8744 #(set-paper-size "a4")
8751 @cindex @code{\newpage}
8757 In this manual @ref{Invoking lilypond}
8759 Examples: @inputfileref{input/regression,between-systems.ly}
8761 Internals: @internalsref{NonMusicalPaperColumn}.
8765 LilyPond has no concept of page layout, which makes it difficult to
8766 reliably choose page breaks in longer pieces.
8775 Entered music can also be converted to MIDI output. The performance
8776 is good enough for proof-hearing the music for errors.
8778 Ties, dynamics and tempo changes are interpreted. Dynamic marks,
8779 crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume levels. Dynamic
8780 marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI volume
8781 range, crescendi and decrescendi make the volume vary linearly between
8782 their two extremities. The fractions can be adjusted by
8783 @code{dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction} in @internalsref{Voice} context.
8784 For each type of MIDI instrument, a volume range can be defined. This
8785 gives a basic equalizer control, which can enhance the quality of
8786 the MIDI output remarkably. The equalizer can be controlled by
8787 setting @code{instrumentEqualizer}.
8791 Many musically interesting effects, such as swing, articulation,
8792 slurring, etc., are not translated to MIDI.
8797 * MIDI instrument names::
8802 @subsection MIDI block
8806 The MIDI block is analogous to the paper block, but it is somewhat
8807 simpler. The @code{\midi} block can contain:
8811 @item a @code{\tempo} definition, and
8812 @item context definitions.
8815 Assignments in the @code{\midi} block are not allowed.
8817 A number followed by a period is interpreted as a real number, so
8818 for setting the tempo for dotted notes, an extra space should be
8819 inserted, for example:
8822 \midi @{ \tempo 4 . = 120 @}
8826 @cindex context definition
8828 Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as within the
8829 \paper block. Translation modules for sound are called performers.
8830 The contexts for MIDI output are defined in @file{ly/performer-init.ly}.
8833 @node MIDI instrument names
8834 @subsection MIDI instrument names
8836 @cindex instrument names
8837 @cindex @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
8839 The MIDI instrument name is set by the @code{Staff.midiInstrument}
8840 property. The instrument name should be chosen from the list in
8841 @ref{MIDI instruments}.
8845 If the selected string does not exactly match, then the default is
8846 used, which is the Grand Piano.