1 Subject: Re: The metaclass saga using Python
2 From: Vladimir Marangozov <Vladimir.Marangozov@imag.fr>
3 To: tim_one@email.msn.com (Tim Peters)
5 Date: Wed, 5 Aug 1998 15:59:06 +0200 (DFT)
9 > building-on-examples-tends-to-prevent-abstract-thrashing-ly y'rs - tim
12 OK, I stand corrected. I understand that anybody's interpretation of
13 the meta-class concept is likely to be difficult to digest by others.
15 Here's another try, expressing the same thing, but using the Python
16 programming model, examples and, perhaps, more popular terms.
20 This is pure Python of today. Sorry about the tutorial, but it is
21 meant to illustrate the second part, which is the one we're
22 interested in and which will follow the same development scenario.
23 Besides, newbies are likely to understand that the discussion is
24 affordable even for them :-)
28 A class is meant to define the common properties of a set of objects.
29 A class is a "package" of properties. The assembly of properties
30 in a class package is sometimes called a class structure (which isn't
34 attr1 = "Hello" # an attribute of A
35 def method1(self, *args): pass # method1 of A
36 def method2(self, *args): pass # method2 of A
39 So far, we defined the structure of the class A. The class A is
40 of type <class>. We can check this by asking Python: "what is A?"
43 <class __main__.A at 2023e360>
45 b) Class instantiation
47 Creating an object with the properties defined in the class A is
48 called instantiation of the class A. After an instantiation of A, we
49 obtain a new object, called an instance, which has the properties
50 packaged in the class A.
52 >>> a = A() # 'a' is the 1st instance of A
54 <__main__.A instance at 2022b9d0>
56 >>> b = A() # 'b' is another instance of A
58 <__main__.A instance at 2022b9c0>
60 The objects, 'a' and 'b', are of type <instance> and they both have
61 the same properties. Note, that 'a' and 'b' are different objects.
62 (their adresses differ). This is a bit hard to see, so let's ask Python:
64 >>> a == b # Is 'a' the same object as 'b'?
67 Instance objects have one more special property, indicating the class
68 they are an instance of. This property is named __class__.
70 >>> a.__class__ # What is the class of 'a'?
71 <class __main__.A at 2023e360> # 'a' is an instance of A
72 >>> b.__class__ # What is the class of 'b'?
73 <class __main__.A at 2023e360> # 'b' is an instance of A
74 >>> a.__class__ == b.__class__ # Is it really the same class A?
77 c) Class inheritance (class composition and specialization)
79 Classes can be defined in terms of other existing classes (and only
80 classes! -- don't bug me on this now). Thus, we can compose property
81 packages and create new ones. We reuse the property set defined
82 in a class by defining a new class, which "inherits" from the former.
83 In other words, a class B which inherits from the class A, inherits
84 the properties defined in A, or, B inherits the structure of A.
86 In the same time, at the definition of the new class B, we can enrich
87 the inherited set of properties by adding new ones and/or modify some
88 of the inherited properties.
90 >>> class B(A): # B inherits A's properties
91 attr2 = "World" # additional attr2
92 def method2(self, arg1): pass # method2 is redefined
93 def method3(self, *args): pass # additional method3
96 <class __main__.B at 2023e500>
97 >>> B == A # Is B the same class as A?
100 Classes define one special property, indicating whether a class
101 inherits the properties of another class. This property is called
102 __bases__ and it contains a list (a tuple) of the classes the new
103 class inherits from. The classes from which a class is inheriting the
104 properties are called superclasses (in Python, we call them also --
107 >>> A.__bases__ # Does A have any superclasses?
109 >>> B.__bases__ # Does B have any superclasses?
110 (<class __main__.A at 2023e360>,) # Yes. It has one superclass.
111 >>> B.__bases__[0] == A # Is it really the class A?
116 Congratulations on getting this far! This was the hard part.
117 Now, let's continue with the easy one.
123 You have to admit, that an anonymous group of Python wizards are
124 not satisfied with the property packaging facilities presented above.
125 They say, that the Real-World bugs them with problems that cannot be
126 modelled successfully with classes. Or, that the way classes are
127 implemented in Python and the way classes and instances behave at
128 runtime isn't always appropriate for reproducing the Real-World's
129 behavior in a way that satisfies them.
131 Hence, what they want is the following:
133 a) leave objects as they are (instances of classes)
134 b) leave classes as they are (property packages and object creators)
136 BUT, at the same time:
138 c) consider classes as being instances of mysterious objects.
139 d) label mysterious objects "meta-classes".
143 You may ask: "Why on earth do they want to do that?".
144 They answer: "Poor soul... Go and see how cruel the Real-World is!".
145 You - fuzzy: "OK, will do!"
147 And here we go for another round of what I said in section 1 -- Classes.
149 However, be warned! The features we're going to talk about aren't fully
150 implemented yet, because the Real-World don't let wizards to evaluate
151 precisely how cruel it is, so the features are still highly-experimental.
153 a) Meta-class definition
155 A meta-class is meant to define the common properties of a set of
156 classes. A meta-class is a "package" of properties. The assembly
157 of properties in a meta-class package is sometimes called a meta-class
158 structure (which isn't always appropriate).
160 In Python, a meta-class definition would have looked like this:
163 attr1 = "Hello" # an attribute of M
164 def method1(self, *args): pass # method1 of M
165 def method2(self, *args): pass # method2 of M
168 So far, we defined the structure of the meta-class M. The meta-class
169 M is of type <metaclass>. We cannot check this by asking Python, but
170 if we could, it would have answered:
173 <metaclass __main__.M at 2023e4e0>
175 b) Meta-class instantiation
177 Creating an object with the properties defined in the meta-class M is
178 called instantiation of the meta-class M. After an instantiation of M,
179 we obtain a new object, called an class, but now it is called also
180 a meta-instance, which has the properties packaged in the meta-class M.
182 In Python, instantiating a meta-class would have looked like this:
184 >>> A = M() # 'A' is the 1st instance of M
186 <class __main__.A at 2022b9d0>
188 >>> B = M() # 'B' is another instance of M
190 <class __main__.B at 2022b9c0>
192 The metaclass-instances, A and B, are of type <class> and they both
193 have the same properties. Note, that A and B are different objects.
194 (their adresses differ). This is a bit hard to see, but if it was
195 possible to ask Python, it would have answered:
197 >>> A == B # Is A the same class as B?
200 Class objects have one more special property, indicating the meta-class
201 they are an instance of. This property is named __metaclass__.
203 >>> A.__metaclass__ # What is the meta-class of A?
204 <metaclass __main__.M at 2023e4e0> # A is an instance of M
205 >>> A.__metaclass__ # What is the meta-class of B?
206 <metaclass __main__.M at 2023e4e0> # B is an instance of M
207 >>> A.__metaclass__ == B.__metaclass__ # Is it the same meta-class M?
210 c) Meta-class inheritance (meta-class composition and specialization)
212 Meta-classes can be defined in terms of other existing meta-classes
213 (and only meta-classes!). Thus, we can compose property packages and
214 create new ones. We reuse the property set defined in a meta-class by
215 defining a new meta-class, which "inherits" from the former.
216 In other words, a meta-class N which inherits from the meta-class M,
217 inherits the properties defined in M, or, N inherits the structure of M.
219 In the same time, at the definition of the new meta-class N, we can
220 enrich the inherited set of properties by adding new ones and/or modify
221 some of the inherited properties.
223 >>> metaclass N(M): # N inherits M's properties
224 attr2 = "World" # additional attr2
225 def method2(self, arg1): pass # method2 is redefined
226 def method3(self, *args): pass # additional method3
229 <metaclass __main__.N at 2023e500>
230 >>> N == M # Is N the same meta-class as M?
233 Meta-classes define one special property, indicating whether a
234 meta-class inherits the properties of another meta-class. This property
235 is called __metabases__ and it contains a list (a tuple) of the
236 meta-classes the new meta-class inherits from. The meta-classes from
237 which a meta-class is inheriting the properties are called
238 super-meta-classes (in Python, we call them also -- super meta-bases).
240 >>> M.__metabases__ # Does M have any supermetaclasses?
242 >>> N.__metabases__ # Does N have any supermetaclasses?
243 (<metaclass __main__.M at 2023e360>,) # Yes. It has a supermetaclass.
244 >>> N.__metabases__[0] == M # Is it really the meta-class M?
249 Triple congratulations on getting this far!
250 Now you know everything about meta-classes and the Real-World!
252 <unless-wizards-want-meta-classes-be-instances-of-mysterious-objects!>
255 Vladimir MARANGOZOV | Vladimir.Marangozov@inrialpes.fr
256 http://sirac.inrialpes.fr/~marangoz | tel:(+33-4)76615277 fax:76615252