8 .. index:: single: execution model
25 :dfn:`Names` refer to objects. Names are introduced by name binding operations.
26 Each occurrence of a name in the program text refers to the :dfn:`binding` of
27 that name established in the innermost function block containing the use.
29 .. index:: single: block
31 A :dfn:`block` is a piece of Python program text that is executed as a unit.
32 The following are blocks: a module, a function body, and a class definition.
33 Each command typed interactively is a block. A script file (a file given as
34 standard input to the interpreter or specified on the interpreter command line
35 the first argument) is a code block. A script command (a command specified on
36 the interpreter command line with the '**-c**' option) is a code block. The
37 file read by the built-in function :func:`execfile` is a code block. The string
38 argument passed to the built-in function :func:`eval` and to the :keyword:`exec`
39 statement is a code block. The expression read and evaluated by the built-in
40 function :func:`input` is a code block.
42 .. index:: pair: execution; frame
44 A code block is executed in an :dfn:`execution frame`. A frame contains some
45 administrative information (used for debugging) and determines where and how
46 execution continues after the code block's execution has completed.
48 .. index:: single: scope
50 A :dfn:`scope` defines the visibility of a name within a block. If a local
51 variable is defined in a block, its scope includes that block. If the
52 definition occurs in a function block, the scope extends to any blocks contained
53 within the defining one, unless a contained block introduces a different binding
54 for the name. The scope of names defined in a class block is limited to the
55 class block; it does not extend to the code blocks of methods -- this includes
56 generator expressions since they are implemented using a function scope. This
57 means that the following will fail::
61 b = list(a + i for i in range(10))
63 .. index:: single: environment
65 When a name is used in a code block, it is resolved using the nearest enclosing
66 scope. The set of all such scopes visible to a code block is called the block's
69 .. index:: pair: free; variable
71 If a name is bound in a block, it is a local variable of that block. If a name
72 is bound at the module level, it is a global variable. (The variables of the
73 module code block are local and global.) If a variable is used in a code block
74 but not defined there, it is a :dfn:`free variable`.
77 single: NameError (built-in exception)
78 single: UnboundLocalError
80 When a name is not found at all, a :exc:`NameError` exception is raised. If the
81 name refers to a local variable that has not been bound, a
82 :exc:`UnboundLocalError` exception is raised. :exc:`UnboundLocalError` is a
83 subclass of :exc:`NameError`.
85 .. index:: statement: from
87 The following constructs bind names: formal parameters to functions,
88 :keyword:`import` statements, class and function definitions (these bind the
89 class or function name in the defining block), and targets that are identifiers
90 if occurring in an assignment, :keyword:`for` loop header, or in the second
91 position of an :keyword:`except` clause header. The :keyword:`import` statement
92 of the form "``from ...import *``" binds all names defined in the imported
93 module, except those beginning with an underscore. This form may only be used
96 A target occurring in a :keyword:`del` statement is also considered bound for
97 this purpose (though the actual semantics are to unbind the name). It is
98 illegal to unbind a name that is referenced by an enclosing scope; the compiler
99 will report a :exc:`SyntaxError`.
101 Each assignment or import statement occurs within a block defined by a class or
102 function definition or at the module level (the top-level code block).
104 If a name binding operation occurs anywhere within a code block, all uses of the
105 name within the block are treated as references to the current block. This can
106 lead to errors when a name is used within a block before it is bound. This rule
107 is subtle. Python lacks declarations and allows name binding operations to
108 occur anywhere within a code block. The local variables of a code block can be
109 determined by scanning the entire text of the block for name binding operations.
111 If the global statement occurs within a block, all uses of the name specified in
112 the statement refer to the binding of that name in the top-level namespace.
113 Names are resolved in the top-level namespace by searching the global namespace,
114 i.e. the namespace of the module containing the code block, and the builtin
115 namespace, the namespace of the module :mod:`__builtin__`. The global namespace
116 is searched first. If the name is not found there, the builtin namespace is
117 searched. The global statement must precede all uses of the name.
119 .. index:: pair: restricted; execution
121 The built-in namespace associated with the execution of a code block is actually
122 found by looking up the name ``__builtins__`` in its global namespace; this
123 should be a dictionary or a module (in the latter case the module's dictionary
124 is used). By default, when in the :mod:`__main__` module, ``__builtins__`` is
125 the built-in module :mod:`__builtin__` (note: no 's'); when in any other module,
126 ``__builtins__`` is an alias for the dictionary of the :mod:`__builtin__` module
127 itself. ``__builtins__`` can be set to a user-created dictionary to create a
128 weak form of restricted execution.
132 Users should not touch ``__builtins__``; it is strictly an implementation
133 detail. Users wanting to override values in the built-in namespace should
134 :keyword:`import` the :mod:`__builtin__` (no 's') module and modify its
135 attributes appropriately.
137 .. index:: module: __main__
139 The namespace for a module is automatically created the first time a module is
140 imported. The main module for a script is always called :mod:`__main__`.
142 The global statement has the same scope as a name binding operation in the same
143 block. If the nearest enclosing scope for a free variable contains a global
144 statement, the free variable is treated as a global.
146 A class definition is an executable statement that may use and define names.
147 These references follow the normal rules for name resolution. The namespace of
148 the class definition becomes the attribute dictionary of the class. Names
149 defined at the class scope are not visible in methods.
152 .. _dynamic-features:
154 Interaction with dynamic features
155 ---------------------------------
157 There are several cases where Python statements are illegal when used in
158 conjunction with nested scopes that contain free variables.
160 If a variable is referenced in an enclosing scope, it is illegal to delete the
161 name. An error will be reported at compile time.
163 If the wild card form of import --- ``import *`` --- is used in a function and
164 the function contains or is a nested block with free variables, the compiler
165 will raise a :exc:`SyntaxError`.
167 If :keyword:`exec` is used in a function and the function contains or is a
168 nested block with free variables, the compiler will raise a :exc:`SyntaxError`
169 unless the exec explicitly specifies the local namespace for the
170 :keyword:`exec`. (In other words, ``exec obj`` would be illegal, but ``exec obj
171 in ns`` would be legal.)
173 The :func:`eval`, :func:`execfile`, and :func:`input` functions and the
174 :keyword:`exec` statement do not have access to the full environment for
175 resolving names. Names may be resolved in the local and global namespaces of
176 the caller. Free variables are not resolved in the nearest enclosing namespace,
177 but in the global namespace. [#]_ The :keyword:`exec` statement and the
178 :func:`eval` and :func:`execfile` functions have optional arguments to override
179 the global and local namespace. If only one namespace is specified, it is used
188 .. index:: single: exception
191 single: raise an exception
192 single: handle an exception
193 single: exception handler
195 single: error handling
197 Exceptions are a means of breaking out of the normal flow of control of a code
198 block in order to handle errors or other exceptional conditions. An exception
199 is *raised* at the point where the error is detected; it may be *handled* by the
200 surrounding code block or by any code block that directly or indirectly invoked
201 the code block where the error occurred.
203 The Python interpreter raises an exception when it detects a run-time error
204 (such as division by zero). A Python program can also explicitly raise an
205 exception with the :keyword:`raise` statement. Exception handlers are specified
206 with the :keyword:`try` ... :keyword:`except` statement. The :keyword:`try` ...
207 :keyword:`finally` statement specifies cleanup code which does not handle the
208 exception, but is executed whether an exception occurred or not in the preceding
211 .. index:: single: termination model
213 Python uses the "termination" model of error handling: an exception handler can
214 find out what happened and continue execution at an outer level, but it cannot
215 repair the cause of the error and retry the failing operation (except by
216 re-entering the offending piece of code from the top).
218 .. index:: single: SystemExit (built-in exception)
220 When an exception is not handled at all, the interpreter terminates execution of
221 the program, or returns to its interactive main loop. In either case, it prints
222 a stack backtrace, except when the exception is :exc:`SystemExit`.
224 Exceptions are identified by class instances. The :keyword:`except` clause is
225 selected depending on the class of the instance: it must reference the class of
226 the instance or a base class thereof. The instance can be received by the
227 handler and can carry additional information about the exceptional condition.
229 Exceptions can also be identified by strings, in which case the
230 :keyword:`except` clause is selected by object identity. An arbitrary value can
231 be raised along with the identifying string which can be passed to the handler.
235 Messages to exceptions are not part of the Python API. Their contents may
236 change from one version of Python to the next without warning and should not be
237 relied on by code which will run under multiple versions of the interpreter.
239 See also the description of the :keyword:`try` statement in section :ref:`try`
240 and :keyword:`raise` statement in section :ref:`raise`.
242 .. rubric:: Footnotes
244 .. [#] This limitation occurs because the code that is executed by these operations is
245 not available at the time the module is compiled.