8 .. index:: pair: compound; statement
10 Compound statements contain (groups of) other statements; they affect or control
11 the execution of those other statements in some way. In general, compound
12 statements span multiple lines, although in simple incarnations a whole compound
13 statement may be contained in one line.
15 The :keyword:`if`, :keyword:`while` and :keyword:`for` statements implement
16 traditional control flow constructs. :keyword:`try` specifies exception
17 handlers and/or cleanup code for a group of statements. Function and class
18 definitions are also syntactically compound statements.
24 Compound statements consist of one or more 'clauses.' A clause consists of a
25 header and a 'suite.' The clause headers of a particular compound statement are
26 all at the same indentation level. Each clause header begins with a uniquely
27 identifying keyword and ends with a colon. A suite is a group of statements
28 controlled by a clause. A suite can be one or more semicolon-separated simple
29 statements on the same line as the header, following the header's colon, or it
30 can be one or more indented statements on subsequent lines. Only the latter
31 form of suite can contain nested compound statements; the following is illegal,
32 mostly because it wouldn't be clear to which :keyword:`if` clause a following
33 :keyword:`else` clause would belong: ::
35 if test1: if test2: print x
37 Also note that the semicolon binds tighter than the colon in this context, so
38 that in the following example, either all or none of the :keyword:`print`
39 statements are executed::
41 if x < y < z: print x; print y; print z
46 compound_stmt: `if_stmt`
54 suite: `stmt_list` NEWLINE | NEWLINE INDENT `statement`+ DEDENT
55 statement: `stmt_list` NEWLINE | `compound_stmt`
56 stmt_list: `simple_stmt` (";" `simple_stmt`)* [";"]
63 Note that statements always end in a ``NEWLINE`` possibly followed by a
64 ``DEDENT``. Also note that optional continuation clauses always begin with a
65 keyword that cannot start a statement, thus there are no ambiguities (the
66 'dangling :keyword:`else`' problem is solved in Python by requiring nested
67 :keyword:`if` statements to be indented).
69 The formatting of the grammar rules in the following sections places each clause
70 on a separate line for clarity.
77 The :keyword:`if` statement
78 ===========================
85 The :keyword:`if` statement is used for conditional execution:
88 if_stmt: "if" `expression` ":" `suite`
89 : ( "elif" `expression` ":" `suite` )*
90 : ["else" ":" `suite`]
92 It selects exactly one of the suites by evaluating the expressions one by one
93 until one is found to be true (see section :ref:`booleans` for the definition of
94 true and false); then that suite is executed (and no other part of the
95 :keyword:`if` statement is executed or evaluated). If all expressions are
96 false, the suite of the :keyword:`else` clause, if present, is executed.
101 The :keyword:`while` statement
102 ==============================
106 pair: loop; statement
109 The :keyword:`while` statement is used for repeated execution as long as an
113 while_stmt: "while" `expression` ":" `suite`
114 : ["else" ":" `suite`]
116 This repeatedly tests the expression and, if it is true, executes the first
117 suite; if the expression is false (which may be the first time it is tested) the
118 suite of the :keyword:`else` clause, if present, is executed and the loop
125 A :keyword:`break` statement executed in the first suite terminates the loop
126 without executing the :keyword:`else` clause's suite. A :keyword:`continue`
127 statement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite and goes back
128 to testing the expression.
133 The :keyword:`for` statement
134 ============================
138 pair: loop; statement
144 The :keyword:`for` statement is used to iterate over the elements of a sequence
145 (such as a string, tuple or list) or other iterable object:
148 for_stmt: "for" `target_list` "in" `expression_list` ":" `suite`
149 : ["else" ":" `suite`]
151 The expression list is evaluated once; it should yield an iterable object. An
152 iterator is created for the result of the ``expression_list``. The suite is
153 then executed once for each item provided by the iterator, in the order of
154 ascending indices. Each item in turn is assigned to the target list using the
155 standard rules for assignments, and then the suite is executed. When the items
156 are exhausted (which is immediately when the sequence is empty), the suite in
157 the :keyword:`else` clause, if present, is executed, and the loop terminates.
163 A :keyword:`break` statement executed in the first suite terminates the loop
164 without executing the :keyword:`else` clause's suite. A :keyword:`continue`
165 statement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite and continues
166 with the next item, or with the :keyword:`else` clause if there was no next
169 The suite may assign to the variable(s) in the target list; this does not affect
170 the next item assigned to it.
174 pair: Pascal; language
176 The target list is not deleted when the loop is finished, but if the sequence is
177 empty, it will not have been assigned to at all by the loop. Hint: the built-in
178 function :func:`range` returns a sequence of integers suitable to emulate the
179 effect of Pascal's ``for i := a to b do``; e.g., ``range(3)`` returns the list
185 single: loop; over mutable sequence
186 single: mutable sequence; loop over
188 There is a subtlety when the sequence is being modified by the loop (this can
189 only occur for mutable sequences, i.e. lists). An internal counter is used to
190 keep track of which item is used next, and this is incremented on each
191 iteration. When this counter has reached the length of the sequence the loop
192 terminates. This means that if the suite deletes the current (or a previous)
193 item from the sequence, the next item will be skipped (since it gets the index
194 of the current item which has already been treated). Likewise, if the suite
195 inserts an item in the sequence before the current item, the current item will
196 be treated again the next time through the loop. This can lead to nasty bugs
197 that can be avoided by making a temporary copy using a slice of the whole
203 if x < 0: a.remove(x)
210 The :keyword:`try` statement
211 ============================
218 The :keyword:`try` statement specifies exception handlers and/or cleanup code
219 for a group of statements:
222 try_stmt: try1_stmt | try2_stmt
223 try1_stmt: "try" ":" `suite`
224 : ("except" [`expression` ["," `target`]] ":" `suite`)+
225 : ["else" ":" `suite`]
226 : ["finally" ":" `suite`]
227 try2_stmt: "try" ":" `suite`
228 : "finally" ":" `suite`
230 .. versionchanged:: 2.5
231 In previous versions of Python, :keyword:`try`...\ :keyword:`except`...\
232 :keyword:`finally` did not work. :keyword:`try`...\ :keyword:`except` had to be
233 nested in :keyword:`try`...\ :keyword:`finally`.
235 The :keyword:`except` clause(s) specify one or more exception handlers. When no
236 exception occurs in the :keyword:`try` clause, no exception handler is executed.
237 When an exception occurs in the :keyword:`try` suite, a search for an exception
238 handler is started. This search inspects the except clauses in turn until one
239 is found that matches the exception. An expression-less except clause, if
240 present, must be last; it matches any exception. For an except clause with an
241 expression, that expression is evaluated, and the clause matches the exception
242 if the resulting object is "compatible" with the exception. An object is
243 compatible with an exception if it is the class or a base class of the exception
244 object, a tuple containing an item compatible with the exception, or, in the
245 (deprecated) case of string exceptions, is the raised string itself (note that
246 the object identities must match, i.e. it must be the same string object, not
247 just a string with the same value).
249 If no except clause matches the exception, the search for an exception handler
250 continues in the surrounding code and on the invocation stack. [#]_
252 If the evaluation of an expression in the header of an except clause raises an
253 exception, the original search for a handler is canceled and a search starts for
254 the new exception in the surrounding code and on the call stack (it is treated
255 as if the entire :keyword:`try` statement raised the exception).
257 When a matching except clause is found, the exception is assigned to the target
258 specified in that except clause, if present, and the except clause's suite is
259 executed. All except clauses must have an executable block. When the end of
260 this block is reached, execution continues normally after the entire try
261 statement. (This means that if two nested handlers exist for the same
262 exception, and the exception occurs in the try clause of the inner handler, the
263 outer handler will not handle the exception.)
268 single: exc_type (in module sys)
269 single: exc_value (in module sys)
270 single: exc_traceback (in module sys)
272 Before an except clause's suite is executed, details about the exception are
273 assigned to three variables in the :mod:`sys` module: ``sys.exc_type`` receives
274 the object identifying the exception; ``sys.exc_value`` receives the exception's
275 parameter; ``sys.exc_traceback`` receives a traceback object (see section
276 :ref:`types`) identifying the point in the program where the exception
277 occurred. These details are also available through the :func:`sys.exc_info`
278 function, which returns a tuple ``(exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback)``. Use
279 of the corresponding variables is deprecated in favor of this function, since
280 their use is unsafe in a threaded program. As of Python 1.5, the variables are
281 restored to their previous values (before the call) when returning from a
282 function that handled an exception.
290 The optional :keyword:`else` clause is executed if and when control flows off
291 the end of the :keyword:`try` clause. [#]_ Exceptions in the :keyword:`else`
292 clause are not handled by the preceding :keyword:`except` clauses.
294 .. index:: keyword: finally
296 If :keyword:`finally` is present, it specifies a 'cleanup' handler. The
297 :keyword:`try` clause is executed, including any :keyword:`except` and
298 :keyword:`else` clauses. If an exception occurs in any of the clauses and is
299 not handled, the exception is temporarily saved. The :keyword:`finally` clause
300 is executed. If there is a saved exception, it is re-raised at the end of the
301 :keyword:`finally` clause. If the :keyword:`finally` clause raises another
302 exception or executes a :keyword:`return` or :keyword:`break` statement, the
303 saved exception is lost. The exception information is not available to the
304 program during execution of the :keyword:`finally` clause.
311 When a :keyword:`return`, :keyword:`break` or :keyword:`continue` statement is
312 executed in the :keyword:`try` suite of a :keyword:`try`...\ :keyword:`finally`
313 statement, the :keyword:`finally` clause is also executed 'on the way out.' A
314 :keyword:`continue` statement is illegal in the :keyword:`finally` clause. (The
315 reason is a problem with the current implementation --- this restriction may be
316 lifted in the future).
318 Additional information on exceptions can be found in section :ref:`exceptions`,
319 and information on using the :keyword:`raise` statement to generate exceptions
320 may be found in section :ref:`raise`.
326 The :keyword:`with` statement
327 =============================
329 .. index:: statement: with
331 .. versionadded:: 2.5
333 The :keyword:`with` statement is used to wrap the execution of a block with
334 methods defined by a context manager (see section :ref:`context-managers`). This
335 allows common :keyword:`try`...\ :keyword:`except`...\ :keyword:`finally` usage
336 patterns to be encapsulated for convenient reuse.
339 with_stmt: "with" `expression` ["as" `target`] ":" `suite`
341 The execution of the :keyword:`with` statement proceeds as follows:
343 #. The context expression is evaluated to obtain a context manager.
345 #. The context manager's :meth:`__enter__` method is invoked.
347 #. If a target was included in the :keyword:`with` statement, the return value
348 from :meth:`__enter__` is assigned to it.
352 The :keyword:`with` statement guarantees that if the :meth:`__enter__` method
353 returns without an error, then :meth:`__exit__` will always be called. Thus, if
354 an error occurs during the assignment to the target list, it will be treated the
355 same as an error occurring within the suite would be. See step 5 below.
357 #. The suite is executed.
359 #. The context manager's :meth:`__exit__` method is invoked. If an exception
360 caused the suite to be exited, its type, value, and traceback are passed as
361 arguments to :meth:`__exit__`. Otherwise, three :const:`None` arguments are
364 If the suite was exited due to an exception, and the return value from the
365 :meth:`__exit__` method was false, the exception is reraised. If the return
366 value was true, the exception is suppressed, and execution continues with the
367 statement following the :keyword:`with` statement.
369 If the suite was exited for any reason other than an exception, the return value
370 from :meth:`__exit__` is ignored, and execution proceeds at the normal location
371 for the kind of exit that was taken.
375 In Python 2.5, the :keyword:`with` statement is only allowed when the
376 ``with_statement`` feature has been enabled. It is always enabled in
381 :pep:`0343` - The "with" statement
382 The specification, background, and examples for the Python :keyword:`with`
394 pair: function; definition
397 object: user-defined function
400 A function definition defines a user-defined function object (see section
404 decorated: decorators (classdef | funcdef)
405 decorators: `decorator`+
406 decorator: "@" `dotted_name` ["(" [`argument_list` [","]] ")"] NEWLINE
407 funcdef: "def" `funcname` "(" [`parameter_list`] ")" ":" `suite`
408 dotted_name: `identifier` ("." `identifier`)*
409 parameter_list: (`defparameter` ",")*
410 : ( "*" `identifier` [, "**" `identifier`]
411 : | "**" `identifier`
412 : | `defparameter` [","] )
413 defparameter: `parameter` ["=" `expression`]
414 sublist: `parameter` ("," `parameter`)* [","]
415 parameter: `identifier` | "(" `sublist` ")"
416 funcname: `identifier`
418 A function definition is an executable statement. Its execution binds the
419 function name in the current local namespace to a function object (a wrapper
420 around the executable code for the function). This function object contains a
421 reference to the current global namespace as the global namespace to be used
422 when the function is called.
424 The function definition does not execute the function body; this gets executed
425 only when the function is called.
427 A function definition may be wrapped by one or more :term:`decorator` expressions.
428 Decorator expressions are evaluated when the function is defined, in the scope
429 that contains the function definition. The result must be a callable, which is
430 invoked with the function object as the only argument. The returned value is
431 bound to the function name instead of the function object. Multiple decorators
432 are applied in nested fashion. For example, the following code::
441 func = f1(arg)(f2(func))
443 .. index:: triple: default; parameter; value
445 When one or more top-level parameters have the form *parameter* ``=``
446 *expression*, the function is said to have "default parameter values." For a
447 parameter with a default value, the corresponding argument may be omitted from a
448 call, in which case the parameter's default value is substituted. If a
449 parameter has a default value, all following parameters must also have a default
450 value --- this is a syntactic restriction that is not expressed by the grammar.
452 **Default parameter values are evaluated when the function definition is
453 executed.** This means that the expression is evaluated once, when the function
454 is defined, and that that same "pre-computed" value is used for each call. This
455 is especially important to understand when a default parameter is a mutable
456 object, such as a list or a dictionary: if the function modifies the object
457 (e.g. by appending an item to a list), the default value is in effect modified.
458 This is generally not what was intended. A way around this is to use ``None``
459 as the default, and explicitly test for it in the body of the function, e.g.::
461 def whats_on_the_telly(penguin=None):
464 penguin.append("property of the zoo")
467 Function call semantics are described in more detail in section :ref:`calls`. A
468 function call always assigns values to all parameters mentioned in the parameter
469 list, either from position arguments, from keyword arguments, or from default
470 values. If the form "``*identifier``" is present, it is initialized to a tuple
471 receiving any excess positional parameters, defaulting to the empty tuple. If
472 the form "``**identifier``" is present, it is initialized to a new dictionary
473 receiving any excess keyword arguments, defaulting to a new empty dictionary.
475 .. index:: pair: lambda; form
477 It is also possible to create anonymous functions (functions not bound to a
478 name), for immediate use in expressions. This uses lambda forms, described in
479 section :ref:`lambda`. Note that the lambda form is merely a shorthand for a
480 simplified function definition; a function defined in a ":keyword:`def`"
481 statement can be passed around or assigned to another name just like a function
482 defined by a lambda form. The ":keyword:`def`" form is actually more powerful
483 since it allows the execution of multiple statements.
485 **Programmer's note:** Functions are first-class objects. A "``def``" form
486 executed inside a function definition defines a local function that can be
487 returned or passed around. Free variables used in the nested function can
488 access the local variables of the function containing the def. See section
489 :ref:`naming` for details.
500 pair: class; definition
503 pair: execution; frame
506 A class definition defines a class object (see section :ref:`types`):
509 classdef: "class" `classname` [`inheritance`] ":" `suite`
510 inheritance: "(" [`expression_list`] ")"
511 classname: `identifier`
513 A class definition is an executable statement. It first evaluates the
514 inheritance list, if present. Each item in the inheritance list should evaluate
515 to a class object or class type which allows subclassing. The class's suite is
516 then executed in a new execution frame (see section :ref:`naming`), using a
517 newly created local namespace and the original global namespace. (Usually, the
518 suite contains only function definitions.) When the class's suite finishes
519 execution, its execution frame is discarded but its local namespace is saved. A
520 class object is then created using the inheritance list for the base classes and
521 the saved local namespace for the attribute dictionary. The class name is bound
522 to this class object in the original local namespace.
524 **Programmer's note:** Variables defined in the class definition are class
525 variables; they are shared by all instances. To create instance variables, they
526 can be set in a method with ``self.name = value``. Both class and instance
527 variables are accessible through the notation "``self.name``", and an instance
528 variable hides a class variable with the same name when accessed in this way.
529 Class variables can be used as defaults for instance variables, but using
530 mutable values there can lead to unexpected results. For :term:`new-style
531 class`\es, descriptors can be used to create instance variables with different
532 implementation details.
534 Class definitions, like function definitions, may be wrapped by one or
535 more :term:`decorator` expressions. The evaluation rules for the
536 decorator expressions are the same as for functions. The result must
537 be a class object, which is then bound to the class name.
539 .. rubric:: Footnotes
541 .. [#] The exception is propagated to the invocation stack only if there is no
542 :keyword:`finally` clause that negates the exception.
544 .. [#] Currently, control "flows off the end" except in the case of an exception or the
545 execution of a :keyword:`return`, :keyword:`continue`, or :keyword:`break`