2 :mod:`dis` --- Disassembler for Python bytecode
3 ===============================================
6 :synopsis: Disassembler for Python bytecode.
9 The :mod:`dis` module supports the analysis of Python :term:`bytecode` by disassembling
10 it. Since there is no Python assembler, this module defines the Python assembly
11 language. The Python bytecode which this module takes as an input is defined
12 in the file :file:`Include/opcode.h` and used by the compiler and the
15 Example: Given the function :func:`myfunc`::
20 the following command can be used to get the disassembly of :func:`myfunc`::
23 2 0 LOAD_GLOBAL 0 (len)
28 (The "2" is a line number).
30 The :mod:`dis` module defines the following functions and constants:
33 .. function:: dis([bytesource])
35 Disassemble the *bytesource* object. *bytesource* can denote either a module, a
36 class, a method, a function, or a code object. For a module, it disassembles
37 all functions. For a class, it disassembles all methods. For a single code
38 sequence, it prints one line per bytecode instruction. If no object is
39 provided, it disassembles the last traceback.
42 .. function:: distb([tb])
44 Disassembles the top-of-stack function of a traceback, using the last traceback
45 if none was passed. The instruction causing the exception is indicated.
48 .. function:: disassemble(code[, lasti])
50 Disassembles a code object, indicating the last instruction if *lasti* was
51 provided. The output is divided in the following columns:
53 #. the line number, for the first instruction of each line
54 #. the current instruction, indicated as ``-->``,
55 #. a labelled instruction, indicated with ``>>``,
56 #. the address of the instruction,
57 #. the operation code name,
58 #. operation parameters, and
59 #. interpretation of the parameters in parentheses.
61 The parameter interpretation recognizes local and global variable names,
62 constant values, branch targets, and compare operators.
65 .. function:: disco(code[, lasti])
67 A synonym for disassemble. It is more convenient to type, and kept for
68 compatibility with earlier Python releases.
73 Sequence of operation names, indexable using the bytecode.
78 Dictionary mapping bytecodes to operation names.
83 Sequence of all compare operation names.
88 Sequence of bytecodes that have a constant parameter.
93 Sequence of bytecodes that access a free variable.
98 Sequence of bytecodes that access an attribute by name.
103 Sequence of bytecodes that have a relative jump target.
108 Sequence of bytecodes that have an absolute jump target.
113 Sequence of bytecodes that access a local variable.
118 Sequence of bytecodes of Boolean operations.
123 Python Bytecode Instructions
124 ----------------------------
126 The Python compiler currently generates the following bytecode instructions.
129 .. opcode:: STOP_CODE ()
131 Indicates end-of-code to the compiler, not used by the interpreter.
136 Do nothing code. Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer.
139 .. opcode:: POP_TOP ()
141 Removes the top-of-stack (TOS) item.
144 .. opcode:: ROT_TWO ()
146 Swaps the two top-most stack items.
149 .. opcode:: ROT_THREE ()
151 Lifts second and third stack item one position up, moves top down to position
155 .. opcode:: ROT_FOUR ()
157 Lifts second, third and forth stack item one position up, moves top down to
161 .. opcode:: DUP_TOP ()
163 Duplicates the reference on top of the stack.
165 Unary Operations take the top of the stack, apply the operation, and push the
166 result back on the stack.
169 .. opcode:: UNARY_POSITIVE ()
171 Implements ``TOS = +TOS``.
174 .. opcode:: UNARY_NEGATIVE ()
176 Implements ``TOS = -TOS``.
179 .. opcode:: UNARY_NOT ()
181 Implements ``TOS = not TOS``.
184 .. opcode:: UNARY_CONVERT ()
186 Implements ``TOS = `TOS```.
189 .. opcode:: UNARY_INVERT ()
191 Implements ``TOS = ~TOS``.
194 .. opcode:: GET_ITER ()
196 Implements ``TOS = iter(TOS)``.
198 Binary operations remove the top of the stack (TOS) and the second top-most
199 stack item (TOS1) from the stack. They perform the operation, and put the
200 result back on the stack.
203 .. opcode:: BINARY_POWER ()
205 Implements ``TOS = TOS1 ** TOS``.
208 .. opcode:: BINARY_MULTIPLY ()
210 Implements ``TOS = TOS1 * TOS``.
213 .. opcode:: BINARY_DIVIDE ()
215 Implements ``TOS = TOS1 / TOS`` when ``from __future__ import division`` is not
219 .. opcode:: BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE ()
221 Implements ``TOS = TOS1 // TOS``.
224 .. opcode:: BINARY_TRUE_DIVIDE ()
226 Implements ``TOS = TOS1 / TOS`` when ``from __future__ import division`` is in
230 .. opcode:: BINARY_MODULO ()
232 Implements ``TOS = TOS1 % TOS``.
235 .. opcode:: BINARY_ADD ()
237 Implements ``TOS = TOS1 + TOS``.
240 .. opcode:: BINARY_SUBTRACT ()
242 Implements ``TOS = TOS1 - TOS``.
245 .. opcode:: BINARY_SUBSCR ()
247 Implements ``TOS = TOS1[TOS]``.
250 .. opcode:: BINARY_LSHIFT ()
252 Implements ``TOS = TOS1 << TOS``.
255 .. opcode:: BINARY_RSHIFT ()
257 Implements ``TOS = TOS1 >> TOS``.
260 .. opcode:: BINARY_AND ()
262 Implements ``TOS = TOS1 & TOS``.
265 .. opcode:: BINARY_XOR ()
267 Implements ``TOS = TOS1 ^ TOS``.
270 .. opcode:: BINARY_OR ()
272 Implements ``TOS = TOS1 | TOS``.
274 In-place operations are like binary operations, in that they remove TOS and
275 TOS1, and push the result back on the stack, but the operation is done in-place
276 when TOS1 supports it, and the resulting TOS may be (but does not have to be)
280 .. opcode:: INPLACE_POWER ()
282 Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 ** TOS``.
285 .. opcode:: INPLACE_MULTIPLY ()
287 Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 * TOS``.
290 .. opcode:: INPLACE_DIVIDE ()
292 Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 / TOS`` when ``from __future__ import
293 division`` is not in effect.
296 .. opcode:: INPLACE_FLOOR_DIVIDE ()
298 Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 // TOS``.
301 .. opcode:: INPLACE_TRUE_DIVIDE ()
303 Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 / TOS`` when ``from __future__ import
304 division`` is in effect.
307 .. opcode:: INPLACE_MODULO ()
309 Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 % TOS``.
312 .. opcode:: INPLACE_ADD ()
314 Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 + TOS``.
317 .. opcode:: INPLACE_SUBTRACT ()
319 Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 - TOS``.
322 .. opcode:: INPLACE_LSHIFT ()
324 Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 << TOS``.
327 .. opcode:: INPLACE_RSHIFT ()
329 Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 >> TOS``.
332 .. opcode:: INPLACE_AND ()
334 Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 & TOS``.
337 .. opcode:: INPLACE_XOR ()
339 Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 ^ TOS``.
342 .. opcode:: INPLACE_OR ()
344 Implements in-place ``TOS = TOS1 | TOS``.
346 The slice opcodes take up to three parameters.
349 .. opcode:: SLICE+0 ()
351 Implements ``TOS = TOS[:]``.
354 .. opcode:: SLICE+1 ()
356 Implements ``TOS = TOS1[TOS:]``.
359 .. opcode:: SLICE+2 ()
361 Implements ``TOS = TOS1[:TOS]``.
364 .. opcode:: SLICE+3 ()
366 Implements ``TOS = TOS2[TOS1:TOS]``.
368 Slice assignment needs even an additional parameter. As any statement, they put
369 nothing on the stack.
372 .. opcode:: STORE_SLICE+0 ()
374 Implements ``TOS[:] = TOS1``.
377 .. opcode:: STORE_SLICE+1 ()
379 Implements ``TOS1[TOS:] = TOS2``.
382 .. opcode:: STORE_SLICE+2 ()
384 Implements ``TOS1[:TOS] = TOS2``.
387 .. opcode:: STORE_SLICE+3 ()
389 Implements ``TOS2[TOS1:TOS] = TOS3``.
392 .. opcode:: DELETE_SLICE+0 ()
394 Implements ``del TOS[:]``.
397 .. opcode:: DELETE_SLICE+1 ()
399 Implements ``del TOS1[TOS:]``.
402 .. opcode:: DELETE_SLICE+2 ()
404 Implements ``del TOS1[:TOS]``.
407 .. opcode:: DELETE_SLICE+3 ()
409 Implements ``del TOS2[TOS1:TOS]``.
412 .. opcode:: STORE_SUBSCR ()
414 Implements ``TOS1[TOS] = TOS2``.
417 .. opcode:: DELETE_SUBSCR ()
419 Implements ``del TOS1[TOS]``.
421 Miscellaneous opcodes.
424 .. opcode:: PRINT_EXPR ()
426 Implements the expression statement for the interactive mode. TOS is removed
427 from the stack and printed. In non-interactive mode, an expression statement is
428 terminated with ``POP_STACK``.
431 .. opcode:: PRINT_ITEM ()
433 Prints TOS to the file-like object bound to ``sys.stdout``. There is one such
434 instruction for each item in the :keyword:`print` statement.
437 .. opcode:: PRINT_ITEM_TO ()
439 Like ``PRINT_ITEM``, but prints the item second from TOS to the file-like object
440 at TOS. This is used by the extended print statement.
443 .. opcode:: PRINT_NEWLINE ()
445 Prints a new line on ``sys.stdout``. This is generated as the last operation of
446 a :keyword:`print` statement, unless the statement ends with a comma.
449 .. opcode:: PRINT_NEWLINE_TO ()
451 Like ``PRINT_NEWLINE``, but prints the new line on the file-like object on the
452 TOS. This is used by the extended print statement.
455 .. opcode:: BREAK_LOOP ()
457 Terminates a loop due to a :keyword:`break` statement.
460 .. opcode:: CONTINUE_LOOP (target)
462 Continues a loop due to a :keyword:`continue` statement. *target* is the
463 address to jump to (which should be a ``FOR_ITER`` instruction).
466 .. opcode:: LIST_APPEND (i)
468 Calls ``list.append(TOS[-i], TOS)``. Used to implement list comprehensions.
469 While the appended value is popped off, the list object remains on the
470 stack so that it is available for further iterations of the loop.
473 .. opcode:: LOAD_LOCALS ()
475 Pushes a reference to the locals of the current scope on the stack. This is used
476 in the code for a class definition: After the class body is evaluated, the
477 locals are passed to the class definition.
480 .. opcode:: RETURN_VALUE ()
482 Returns with TOS to the caller of the function.
485 .. opcode:: YIELD_VALUE ()
487 Pops ``TOS`` and yields it from a :term:`generator`.
490 .. opcode:: IMPORT_STAR ()
492 Loads all symbols not starting with ``'_'`` directly from the module TOS to the
493 local namespace. The module is popped after loading all names. This opcode
494 implements ``from module import *``.
497 .. opcode:: EXEC_STMT ()
499 Implements ``exec TOS2,TOS1,TOS``. The compiler fills missing optional
500 parameters with ``None``.
503 .. opcode:: POP_BLOCK ()
505 Removes one block from the block stack. Per frame, there is a stack of blocks,
506 denoting nested loops, try statements, and such.
509 .. opcode:: END_FINALLY ()
511 Terminates a :keyword:`finally` clause. The interpreter recalls whether the
512 exception has to be re-raised, or whether the function returns, and continues
513 with the outer-next block.
516 .. opcode:: BUILD_CLASS ()
518 Creates a new class object. TOS is the methods dictionary, TOS1 the tuple of
519 the names of the base classes, and TOS2 the class name.
522 .. opcode:: WITH_CLEANUP ()
524 Cleans up the stack when a :keyword:`with` statement block exits. On top of
525 the stack are 1--3 values indicating how/why the finally clause was entered:
528 * (TOP, SECOND) = (``WHY_{RETURN,CONTINUE}``), retval
529 * TOP = ``WHY_*``; no retval below it
530 * (TOP, SECOND, THIRD) = exc_info()
532 Under them is EXIT, the context manager's :meth:`__exit__` bound method.
534 In the last case, ``EXIT(TOP, SECOND, THIRD)`` is called, otherwise
535 ``EXIT(None, None, None)``.
537 EXIT is removed from the stack, leaving the values above it in the same
538 order. In addition, if the stack represents an exception, *and* the function
539 call returns a 'true' value, this information is "zapped", to prevent
540 ``END_FINALLY`` from re-raising the exception. (But non-local gotos should
543 .. XXX explain the WHY stuff!
546 All of the following opcodes expect arguments. An argument is two bytes, with
547 the more significant byte last.
549 .. opcode:: STORE_NAME (namei)
551 Implements ``name = TOS``. *namei* is the index of *name* in the attribute
552 :attr:`co_names` of the code object. The compiler tries to use ``STORE_FAST``
553 or ``STORE_GLOBAL`` if possible.
556 .. opcode:: DELETE_NAME (namei)
558 Implements ``del name``, where *namei* is the index into :attr:`co_names`
559 attribute of the code object.
562 .. opcode:: UNPACK_SEQUENCE (count)
564 Unpacks TOS into *count* individual values, which are put onto the stack
568 .. opcode:: DUP_TOPX (count)
570 Duplicate *count* items, keeping them in the same order. Due to implementation
571 limits, *count* should be between 1 and 5 inclusive.
574 .. opcode:: STORE_ATTR (namei)
576 Implements ``TOS.name = TOS1``, where *namei* is the index of name in
580 .. opcode:: DELETE_ATTR (namei)
582 Implements ``del TOS.name``, using *namei* as index into :attr:`co_names`.
585 .. opcode:: STORE_GLOBAL (namei)
587 Works as ``STORE_NAME``, but stores the name as a global.
590 .. opcode:: DELETE_GLOBAL (namei)
592 Works as ``DELETE_NAME``, but deletes a global name.
595 .. opcode:: LOAD_CONST (consti)
597 Pushes ``co_consts[consti]`` onto the stack.
600 .. opcode:: LOAD_NAME (namei)
602 Pushes the value associated with ``co_names[namei]`` onto the stack.
605 .. opcode:: BUILD_TUPLE (count)
607 Creates a tuple consuming *count* items from the stack, and pushes the resulting
608 tuple onto the stack.
611 .. opcode:: BUILD_LIST (count)
613 Works as ``BUILD_TUPLE``, but creates a list.
616 .. opcode:: BUILD_MAP (count)
618 Pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack. The dictionary is pre-sized
619 to hold *count* entries.
622 .. opcode:: LOAD_ATTR (namei)
624 Replaces TOS with ``getattr(TOS, co_names[namei])``.
627 .. opcode:: COMPARE_OP (opname)
629 Performs a Boolean operation. The operation name can be found in
633 .. opcode:: IMPORT_NAME (namei)
635 Imports the module ``co_names[namei]``. TOS and TOS1 are popped and provide
636 the *fromlist* and *level* arguments of :func:`__import__`. The module
637 object is pushed onto the stack. The current namespace is not affected:
638 for a proper import statement, a subsequent ``STORE_FAST`` instruction
639 modifies the namespace.
642 .. opcode:: IMPORT_FROM (namei)
644 Loads the attribute ``co_names[namei]`` from the module found in TOS. The
645 resulting object is pushed onto the stack, to be subsequently stored by a
646 ``STORE_FAST`` instruction.
649 .. opcode:: JUMP_FORWARD (delta)
651 Increments bytecode counter by *delta*.
654 .. opcode:: JUMP_IF_TRUE (delta)
656 If TOS is true, increment the bytecode counter by *delta*. TOS is left on the
660 .. opcode:: JUMP_IF_FALSE (delta)
662 If TOS is false, increment the bytecode counter by *delta*. TOS is not
666 .. opcode:: JUMP_ABSOLUTE (target)
668 Set bytecode counter to *target*.
671 .. opcode:: FOR_ITER (delta)
673 ``TOS`` is an :term:`iterator`. Call its :meth:`next` method. If this
674 yields a new value, push it on the stack (leaving the iterator below it). If
675 the iterator indicates it is exhausted ``TOS`` is popped, and the bytecode
676 counter is incremented by *delta*.
679 .. opcode:: LOAD_GLOBAL (namei)
681 Loads the global named ``co_names[namei]`` onto the stack.
684 .. opcode:: SETUP_LOOP (delta)
686 Pushes a block for a loop onto the block stack. The block spans from the
687 current instruction with a size of *delta* bytes.
690 .. opcode:: SETUP_EXCEPT (delta)
692 Pushes a try block from a try-except clause onto the block stack. *delta* points
693 to the first except block.
696 .. opcode:: SETUP_FINALLY (delta)
698 Pushes a try block from a try-except clause onto the block stack. *delta* points
699 to the finally block.
701 .. opcode:: STORE_MAP ()
703 Store a key and value pair in a dictionary. Pops the key and value while leaving
704 the dictionary on the stack.
706 .. opcode:: LOAD_FAST (var_num)
708 Pushes a reference to the local ``co_varnames[var_num]`` onto the stack.
711 .. opcode:: STORE_FAST (var_num)
713 Stores TOS into the local ``co_varnames[var_num]``.
716 .. opcode:: DELETE_FAST (var_num)
718 Deletes local ``co_varnames[var_num]``.
721 .. opcode:: LOAD_CLOSURE (i)
723 Pushes a reference to the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free
724 variable storage. The name of the variable is ``co_cellvars[i]`` if *i* is
725 less than the length of *co_cellvars*. Otherwise it is ``co_freevars[i -
729 .. opcode:: LOAD_DEREF (i)
731 Loads the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free variable storage.
732 Pushes a reference to the object the cell contains on the stack.
735 .. opcode:: STORE_DEREF (i)
737 Stores TOS into the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free variable
741 .. opcode:: SET_LINENO (lineno)
743 This opcode is obsolete.
746 .. opcode:: RAISE_VARARGS (argc)
748 Raises an exception. *argc* indicates the number of parameters to the raise
749 statement, ranging from 0 to 3. The handler will find the traceback as TOS2,
750 the parameter as TOS1, and the exception as TOS.
753 .. opcode:: CALL_FUNCTION (argc)
755 Calls a function. The low byte of *argc* indicates the number of positional
756 parameters, the high byte the number of keyword parameters. On the stack, the
757 opcode finds the keyword parameters first. For each keyword argument, the value
758 is on top of the key. Below the keyword parameters, the positional parameters
759 are on the stack, with the right-most parameter on top. Below the parameters,
760 the function object to call is on the stack. Pops all function arguments, and
761 the function itself off the stack, and pushes the return value.
764 .. opcode:: MAKE_FUNCTION (argc)
766 Pushes a new function object on the stack. TOS is the code associated with the
767 function. The function object is defined to have *argc* default parameters,
768 which are found below TOS.
771 .. opcode:: MAKE_CLOSURE (argc)
773 Creates a new function object, sets its *func_closure* slot, and pushes it on
774 the stack. TOS is the code associated with the function, TOS1 the tuple
775 containing cells for the closure's free variables. The function also has
776 *argc* default parameters, which are found below the cells.
779 .. opcode:: BUILD_SLICE (argc)
781 .. index:: builtin: slice
783 Pushes a slice object on the stack. *argc* must be 2 or 3. If it is 2,
784 ``slice(TOS1, TOS)`` is pushed; if it is 3, ``slice(TOS2, TOS1, TOS)`` is
785 pushed. See the :func:`slice` built-in function for more information.
788 .. opcode:: EXTENDED_ARG (ext)
790 Prefixes any opcode which has an argument too big to fit into the default two
791 bytes. *ext* holds two additional bytes which, taken together with the
792 subsequent opcode's argument, comprise a four-byte argument, *ext* being the two
793 most-significant bytes.
796 .. opcode:: CALL_FUNCTION_VAR (argc)
798 Calls a function. *argc* is interpreted as in ``CALL_FUNCTION``. The top element
799 on the stack contains the variable argument list, followed by keyword and
800 positional arguments.
803 .. opcode:: CALL_FUNCTION_KW (argc)
805 Calls a function. *argc* is interpreted as in ``CALL_FUNCTION``. The top element
806 on the stack contains the keyword arguments dictionary, followed by explicit
807 keyword and positional arguments.
810 .. opcode:: CALL_FUNCTION_VAR_KW (argc)
812 Calls a function. *argc* is interpreted as in ``CALL_FUNCTION``. The top
813 element on the stack contains the keyword arguments dictionary, followed by the
814 variable-arguments tuple, followed by explicit keyword and positional arguments.
817 .. opcode:: HAVE_ARGUMENT ()
819 This is not really an opcode. It identifies the dividing line between opcodes
820 which don't take arguments ``< HAVE_ARGUMENT`` and those which do ``>=