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27 .TH USER_NAMESPACES 7 2021-03-22 "Linux" "Linux Programmer's Manual"
29 user_namespaces \- overview of Linux user namespaces
31 For an overview of namespaces, see
34 User namespaces isolate security-related identifiers and attributes,
36 user IDs and group IDs (see
41 .\" FIXME: This page says very little about the interaction
42 .\" of user namespaces and keys. Add something on this topic.
44 .BR capabilities (7)).
45 A process's user and group IDs can be different
46 inside and outside a user namespace.
48 a process can have a normal unprivileged user ID outside a user namespace
49 while at the same time having a user ID of 0 inside the namespace;
51 the process has full privileges for operations inside the user namespace,
52 but is unprivileged for operations outside the namespace.
54 .\" ============================================================
56 .SS Nested namespaces, namespace membership
57 User namespaces can be nested;
58 that is, each user namespace\(emexcept the initial ("root")
59 namespace\(emhas a parent user namespace,
60 and can have zero or more child user namespaces.
61 The parent user namespace is the user namespace
62 of the process that creates the user namespace via a call to
70 The kernel imposes (since version 3.11) a limit of 32 nested levels of
71 .\" commit 8742f229b635bf1c1c84a3dfe5e47c814c20b5c8
73 .\" FIXME Explain the rationale for this limit. (What is the rationale?)
78 that would cause this limit to be exceeded fail with the error
81 Each process is a member of exactly one user namespace.
88 flag is a member of the same user namespace as its parent.
89 A single-threaded process can join another user namespace with
94 upon doing so, it gains a full set of capabilities in that namespace.
102 flag makes the new child process (for
106 a member of the new user namespace created by the call.
111 operation can be used to discover the parental relationship
112 between user namespaces; see
115 .\" ============================================================
118 The child process created by
122 flag starts out with a complete set
123 of capabilities in the new user namespace.
124 Likewise, a process that creates a new user namespace using
126 or joins an existing user namespace using
128 gains a full set of capabilities in that namespace.
130 that process has no capabilities in the parent (in the case of
132 or previous (in the case of
137 even if the new namespace is created or joined by the root user
138 (i.e., a process with user ID 0 in the root namespace).
142 will cause a process's capabilities to be recalculated in the usual way (see
143 .BR capabilities (7)).
145 unless the process has a user ID of 0 within the namespace,
146 or the executable file has a nonempty inheritable capabilities mask,
147 the process will lose all capabilities.
148 See the discussion of user and group ID mappings, below.
159 that moves the caller into another user namespace
160 sets the "securebits" flags
162 .BR capabilities (7))
163 to their default values (all flags disabled) in the child (for
169 Note that because the caller no longer has capabilities
170 in its original user namespace after a call to
172 it is not possible for a process to reset its "securebits" flags while
173 retaining its user namespace membership by using a pair of
175 calls to move to another user namespace and then return to
176 its original user namespace.
178 The rules for determining whether or not a process has a capability
179 in a particular user namespace are as follows:
181 A process has a capability inside a user namespace
182 if it is a member of that namespace and
183 it has the capability in its effective capability set.
184 A process can gain capabilities in its effective capability
186 For example, it may execute a set-user-ID program or an
187 executable with associated file capabilities.
189 a process may gain capabilities via the effect of
194 as already described.
195 .\" In the 3.8 sources, see security/commoncap.c::cap_capable():
197 If a process has a capability in a user namespace,
198 then it has that capability in all child (and further removed descendant)
201 .\" * The owner of the user namespace in the parent of the
202 .\" * user namespace has all caps.
203 When a user namespace is created, the kernel records the effective
204 user ID of the creating process as being the "owner" of the namespace.
205 .\" (and likewise associates the effective group ID of the creating process
206 .\" with the namespace).
207 A process that resides
208 in the parent of the user namespace
209 .\" See kernel commit 520d9eabce18edfef76a60b7b839d54facafe1f9 for a fix
211 and whose effective user ID matches the owner of the namespace
212 has all capabilities in the namespace.
213 .\" This includes the case where the process executes a set-user-ID
214 .\" program that confers the effective UID of the creator of the namespace.
215 By virtue of the previous rule,
216 this means that the process has all capabilities in all
217 further removed descendant user namespaces as well.
221 operation can be used to discover the user ID of the owner of the namespace;
225 .\" ============================================================
227 .SS Effect of capabilities within a user namespace
228 Having a capability inside a user namespace
229 permits a process to perform operations (that require privilege)
230 only on resources governed by that namespace.
231 In other words, having a capability in a user namespace permits a process
232 to perform privileged operations on resources that are governed by (nonuser)
233 namespaces owned by (associated with) the user namespace
234 (see the next subsection).
236 On the other hand, there are many privileged operations that affect
237 resources that are not associated with any namespace type,
238 for example, changing the system (i.e., calendar) time (governed by
240 loading a kernel module (governed by
241 .BR CAP_SYS_MODULE ),
242 and creating a device (governed by
244 Only a process with privileges in the
246 user namespace can perform such operations.
250 within the user namespace that owns a process's mount namespace
251 allows that process to create bind mounts
252 and mount the following types of filesystems:
253 .\" fs_flags = FS_USERNS_MOUNT in kernel sources
277 .\" commit b2197755b2633e164a439682fb05a9b5ea48f706
281 .\" commit 92dbc9dedccb9759c7f9f2f0ae6242396376988f
282 .\" commit 4cb2c00c43b3fe88b32f29df4f76da1b92c33224
289 within the user namespace that owns a process's cgroup namespace
290 allows (since Linux 4.6)
291 that process to the mount the cgroup version 2 filesystem and
292 cgroup version 1 named hierarchies
293 (i.e., cgroup filesystems mounted with the
299 within the user namespace that owns a process's PID namespace
300 allows (since Linux 3.8)
301 that process to mount
305 Note however, that mounting block-based filesystems can be done
306 only by a process that holds
308 in the initial user namespace.
310 .\" ============================================================
312 .SS Interaction of user namespaces and other types of namespaces
313 Starting in Linux 3.8, unprivileged processes can create user namespaces,
314 and the other types of namespaces can be created with just the
316 capability in the caller's user namespace.
318 When a nonuser namespace is created,
319 it is owned by the user namespace in which the creating process
320 was a member at the time of the creation of the namespace.
321 Privileged operations on resources governed by the nonuser namespace
322 require that the process has the necessary capabilities
323 in the user namespace that owns the nonuser namespace.
327 is specified along with other
333 call, the user namespace is guaranteed to be created first,
338 privileges over the remaining namespaces created by the call.
339 Thus, it is possible for an unprivileged caller to specify this combination
342 When a new namespace (other than a user namespace) is created via
346 the kernel records the user namespace of the creating process as the owner of
348 (This association can't be changed.)
349 When a process in the new namespace subsequently performs
350 privileged operations that operate on global
351 resources isolated by the namespace,
352 the permission checks are performed according to the process's capabilities
353 in the user namespace that the kernel associated with the new namespace.
354 For example, suppose that a process attempts to change the hostname
355 .RB ( sethostname (2)),
356 a resource governed by the UTS namespace.
358 the kernel will determine which user namespace owns
359 the process's UTS namespace, and check whether the process has the
361 .RB ( CAP_SYS_ADMIN )
362 in that user namespace.
367 operation can be used to discover the user namespace
368 that owns a nonuser namespace; see
371 .\" ============================================================
373 .SS User and group ID mappings: uid_map and gid_map
374 When a user namespace is created,
375 it starts out without a mapping of user IDs (group IDs)
376 to the parent user namespace.
378 .IR /proc/[pid]/uid_map
380 .IR /proc/[pid]/gid_map
381 files (available since Linux 3.5)
382 .\" commit 22d917d80e842829d0ca0a561967d728eb1d6303
383 expose the mappings for user and group IDs
384 inside the user namespace for the process
386 These files can be read to view the mappings in a user namespace and
387 written to (once) to define the mappings.
389 The description in the following paragraphs explains the details for
393 but each instance of "user ID" is replaced by "group ID".
397 file exposes the mapping of user IDs from the user namespace
400 to the user namespace of the process that opened
402 (but see a qualification to this point below).
403 In other words, processes that are in different user namespaces
404 will potentially see different values when reading from a particular
406 file, depending on the user ID mappings for the user namespaces
407 of the reading processes.
411 file specifies a 1-to-1 mapping of a range of contiguous
412 user IDs between two user namespaces.
413 (When a user namespace is first created, this file is empty.)
414 The specification in each line takes the form of
415 three numbers delimited by white space.
416 The first two numbers specify the starting user ID in
417 each of the two user namespaces.
418 The third number specifies the length of the mapped range.
419 In detail, the fields are interpreted as follows:
421 The start of the range of user IDs in
422 the user namespace of the process
425 The start of the range of user
426 IDs to which the user IDs specified by field one map.
427 How field two is interpreted depends on whether the process that opened
431 are in the same user namespace, as follows:
434 If the two processes are in different user namespaces:
435 field two is the start of a range of
436 user IDs in the user namespace of the process that opened
439 If the two processes are in the same user namespace:
440 field two is the start of the range of
441 user IDs in the parent user namespace of the process
443 This case enables the opener of
445 (the common case here is opening
446 .IR /proc/self/uid_map )
447 to see the mapping of user IDs into the user namespace of the process
448 that created this user namespace.
451 The length of the range of user IDs that is mapped between the two
454 System calls that return user IDs (group IDs)\(emfor example,
457 and the credential fields in the structure returned by
458 .BR stat (2)\(emreturn
459 the user ID (group ID) mapped into the caller's user namespace.
461 When a process accesses a file, its user and group IDs
462 are mapped into the initial user namespace for the purpose of permission
463 checking and assigning IDs when creating a file.
464 When a process retrieves file user and group IDs via
466 the IDs are mapped in the opposite direction,
467 to produce values relative to the process user and group ID mappings.
469 The initial user namespace has no parent namespace,
470 but, for consistency, the kernel provides dummy user and group
471 ID mapping files for this namespace.
476 is the same) from a shell in the initial namespace shows:
480 $ \fBcat /proc/$$/uid_map\fP
485 This mapping tells us
486 that the range starting at user ID 0 in this namespace
487 maps to a range starting at 0 in the (nonexistent) parent namespace,
488 and the length of the range is the largest 32-bit unsigned integer.
489 This leaves 4294967295 (the 32-bit signed \-1 value) unmapped.
492 is used in several interfaces (e.g.,
494 as a way to specify "no user ID".
497 unmapped and unusable guarantees that there will be no
498 confusion when using these interfaces.
500 .\" ============================================================
502 .SS Defining user and group ID mappings: writing to uid_map and gid_map
503 After the creation of a new user namespace, the
507 of the processes in the namespace may be written to
509 to define the mapping of user IDs in the new user namespace.
510 An attempt to write more than once to a
512 file in a user namespace fails with the error
514 Similar rules apply for
521 must conform to the following rules:
523 The three fields must be valid numbers,
524 and the last field must be greater than 0.
526 Lines are terminated by newline characters.
528 There is a limit on the number of lines in the file.
529 In Linux 4.14 and earlier, this limit was (arbitrarily)
530 .\" 5*12-byte records could fit in a 64B cache line
533 .\" commit 6397fac4915ab3002dc15aae751455da1a852f25
534 the limit is 340 lines.
535 In addition, the number of bytes written to
536 the file must be less than the system page size,
537 and the write must be performed at the start of the file (i.e.,
541 can't be used to write to nonzero offsets in the file).
543 The range of user IDs (group IDs)
544 specified in each line cannot overlap with the ranges
546 In the initial implementation (Linux 3.8), this requirement was
547 satisfied by a simplistic implementation that imposed the further
549 the values in both field 1 and field 2 of successive lines must be
550 in ascending numerical order,
551 which prevented some otherwise valid maps from being created.
553 .\" commit 0bd14b4fd72afd5df41e9fd59f356740f22fceba
554 fix this limitation, allowing any valid set of nonoverlapping maps.
556 At least one line must be written to the file.
558 Writes that violate the above rules fail with the error
561 In order for a process to write to the
562 .I /proc/[pid]/uid_map
563 .RI ( /proc/[pid]/gid_map )
564 file, all of the following requirements must be met:
566 The writing process must have the
569 capability in the user namespace of the process
572 The writing process must either be in the user namespace of the process
574 or be in the parent user namespace of the process
577 The mapped user IDs (group IDs) must in turn have a mapping
578 in the parent user namespace.
581 .IR /proc/[pid]/uid_map
582 to create a mapping that maps UID 0 in the parent namespace,
583 then one of the following must be true:
586 if writing process is in the parent user namespace,
587 then it must have the
589 capability in that user namespace; or
591 if the writing process is in the child user namespace,
592 then the process that created the user namespace must have had the
594 capability when the namespace was created.
597 This rule has been in place since
598 .\" commit db2e718a47984b9d71ed890eb2ea36ecf150de18
600 It eliminates an earlier security bug whereby
601 a UID 0 process that lacks the
604 which is needed to create a binary with namespaced file capabilities
606 .BR capabilities (7)),
607 could nevertheless create such a binary,
608 by the following steps:
611 Create a new user namespace with the identity mapping
612 (i.e., UID 0 in the new user namespace maps to UID 0 in the parent namespace),
613 so that UID 0 in both namespaces is equivalent to the same root user ID.
615 Since the child process has the
617 capability, it could create a binary with namespaced file capabilities
618 that would then be effective in the parent user namespace
619 (because the root user IDs are the same in the two namespaces).
622 One of the following two cases applies:
626 the writing process has the
634 No further restrictions apply:
635 the process can make mappings to arbitrary user IDs (group IDs)
636 in the parent user namespace.
640 otherwise all of the following restrictions apply:
646 must consist of a single line that maps
647 the writing process's effective user ID
648 (group ID) in the parent user namespace to a user ID (group ID)
649 in the user namespace.
651 The writing process must have the same effective user ID as the process
652 that created the user namespace.
658 system call must first be denied by writing
661 .I /proc/[pid]/setgroups
662 file (see below) before writing to
667 Writes that violate the above rules fail with the error
670 .\" ============================================================
672 .SS Interaction with system calls that change process UIDs or GIDs
673 In a user namespace where the
675 file has not been written, the system calls that change user IDs will fail.
678 file has not been written, the system calls that change group IDs will fail.
683 files have been written, only the mapped values may be used in
684 system calls that change user and group IDs.
686 For user IDs, the relevant system calls include
692 For group IDs, the relevant system calls include
703 .I /proc/[pid]/setgroups
704 file before writing to
705 .I /proc/[pid]/gid_map
706 .\" Things changed in Linux 3.19
707 .\" commit 9cc46516ddf497ea16e8d7cb986ae03a0f6b92f8
708 .\" commit 66d2f338ee4c449396b6f99f5e75cd18eb6df272
709 .\" http://lwn.net/Articles/626665/
710 will permanently disable
712 in a user namespace and allow writing to
713 .I /proc/[pid]/gid_map
716 capability in the parent user namespace.
718 .\" ============================================================
720 .SS The /proc/[pid]/setgroups file
722 .\" commit 9cc46516ddf497ea16e8d7cb986ae03a0f6b92f8
723 .\" commit 66d2f338ee4c449396b6f99f5e75cd18eb6df272
724 .\" http://lwn.net/Articles/626665/
725 .\" http://web.nvd.nist.gov/view/vuln/detail?vulnId=CVE-2014-8989
728 .I /proc/[pid]/setgroups
729 file displays the string
731 if processes in the user namespace that contains the process
733 are permitted to employ the
735 system call; it displays
739 is not permitted in that user namespace.
740 Note that regardless of the value in the
741 .I /proc/[pid]/setgroups
742 file (and regardless of the process's capabilities), calls to
744 are also not permitted if
745 .IR /proc/[pid]/gid_map
746 has not yet been set.
748 A privileged process (one with the
750 capability in the namespace) may write either of the strings
756 writing a group ID mapping
757 for this user namespace to the file
758 .IR /proc/[pid]/gid_map .
761 prevents any process in the user namespace from employing
764 The essence of the restrictions described in the preceding
765 paragraph is that it is permitted to write to
766 .I /proc/[pid]/setgroups
767 only so long as calling
769 is disallowed because
770 .I /proc/[pid]/gid_map
772 This ensures that a process cannot transition from a state where
774 is allowed to a state where
777 a process can transition only from
783 The default value of this file in the initial user namespace is
787 .IR /proc/[pid]/gid_map
789 (which has the effect of enabling
791 in the user namespace),
792 it is no longer possible to disallow
797 .IR /proc/[pid]/setgroups
798 (the write fails with the error
801 A child user namespace inherits the
802 .IR /proc/[pid]/setgroups
803 setting from its parent.
811 system call can't subsequently be reenabled (by writing
813 to the file) in this user namespace.
814 (Attempts to do so fail with the error
816 This restriction also propagates down to all child user namespaces of
820 .I /proc/[pid]/setgroups
821 file was added in Linux 3.19,
822 but was backported to many earlier stable kernel series,
823 because it addresses a security issue.
824 The issue concerned files with permissions such as "rwx\-\-\-rwx".
825 Such files give fewer permissions to "group" than they do to "other".
826 This means that dropping groups using
828 might allow a process file access that it did not formerly have.
829 Before the existence of user namespaces this was not a concern,
830 since only a privileged process (one with the
832 capability) could call
834 However, with the introduction of user namespaces,
835 it became possible for an unprivileged process to create
836 a new namespace in which the user had all privileges.
837 This then allowed formerly unprivileged
838 users to drop groups and thus gain file access
839 that they did not previously have.
841 .I /proc/[pid]/setgroups
842 file was added to address this security issue,
843 by denying any pathway for an unprivileged process to drop groups with
846 .\" /proc/PID/setgroups
847 .\" [allow == setgroups() is allowed, "deny" == setgroups() is disallowed]
848 .\" * Can write if have CAP_SYS_ADMIN in NS
849 .\" * Must write BEFORE writing to /proc/PID/gid_map
852 .\" * Must already have written to gid_map
853 .\" * /proc/PID/setgroups must be "allow"
855 .\" /proc/PID/gid_map -- writing
856 .\" * Must already have written "deny" to /proc/PID/setgroups
858 .\" ============================================================
860 .SS Unmapped user and group IDs
861 There are various places where an unmapped user ID (group ID)
862 may be exposed to user space.
863 For example, the first process in a new user namespace may call
865 before a user ID mapping has been defined for the namespace.
866 In most such cases, an unmapped user ID is converted
867 .\" from_kuid_munged(), from_kgid_munged()
868 to the overflow user ID (group ID);
869 the default value for the overflow user ID (group ID) is 65534.
870 See the descriptions of
871 .IR /proc/sys/kernel/overflowuid
873 .IR /proc/sys/kernel/overflowgid
877 The cases where unmapped IDs are mapped in this fashion include
878 system calls that return user IDs
882 credentials passed over a UNIX domain socket,
884 credentials returned by
887 and the System V IPC "ctl"
890 credentials exposed by
891 .IR /proc/[pid]/status
893 .IR /proc/sysvipc/* ,
894 credentials returned via the
898 received with a signal (see
900 credentials written to the process accounting file (see
902 and credentials returned with POSIX message queue notifications (see
905 There is one notable case where unmapped user and group IDs are
907 .\" from_kuid(), from_kgid()
908 .\" Also F_GETOWNER_UIDS is an exception
909 converted to the corresponding overflow ID value.
914 file in which there is no mapping for the second field,
915 that field is displayed as 4294967295 (\-1 as an unsigned integer).
917 .\" ============================================================
920 In order to determine permissions when an unprivileged process accesses a file,
921 the process credentials (UID, GID) and the file credentials
922 are in effect mapped back to what they would be in
923 the initial user namespace and then compared to determine
924 the permissions that the process has on the file.
925 The same is also of other objects that employ the credentials plus
926 permissions mask accessibility model, such as System V IPC objects
928 .\" ============================================================
930 .SS Operation of file-related capabilities
931 Certain capabilities allow a process to bypass various
932 kernel-enforced restrictions when performing operations on
933 files owned by other users or groups.
934 These capabilities are:
936 .BR CAP_DAC_OVERRIDE ,
937 .BR CAP_DAC_READ_SEARCH ,
942 Within a user namespace,
943 these capabilities allow a process to bypass the rules
944 if the process has the relevant capability over the file,
947 the process has the relevant effective capability in its user namespace; and
949 the file's user ID and group ID both have valid mappings
950 in the user namespace.
954 capability is treated somewhat exceptionally:
955 .\" These are the checks performed by the kernel function
956 .\" inode_owner_or_capable(). There is one exception to the exception:
957 .\" overriding the directory sticky permission bit requires that
958 .\" the file has a valid mapping for both its UID and GID.
959 it allows a process to bypass the corresponding rules so long as
960 at least the file's user ID has a mapping in the user namespace
961 (i.e., the file's group ID does not need to have a valid mapping).
963 .\" ============================================================
965 .SS Set-user-ID and set-group-ID programs
966 When a process inside a user namespace executes
967 a set-user-ID (set-group-ID) program,
968 the process's effective user (group) ID inside the namespace is changed
969 to whatever value is mapped for the user (group) ID of the file.
970 However, if either the user
972 the group ID of the file has no mapping inside the namespace,
973 the set-user-ID (set-group-ID) bit is silently ignored:
974 the new program is executed,
975 but the process's effective user (group) ID is left unchanged.
976 (This mirrors the semantics of executing a set-user-ID or set-group-ID
977 program that resides on a filesystem that was mounted with the
979 flag, as described in
982 .\" ============================================================
985 When a process's user and group IDs are passed over a UNIX domain socket
986 to a process in a different user namespace (see the description of
990 they are translated into the corresponding values as per the
991 receiving process's user and group ID mappings.
994 Namespaces are a Linux-specific feature.
997 Over the years, there have been a lot of features that have been added
998 to the Linux kernel that have been made available only to privileged users
999 because of their potential to confuse set-user-ID-root applications.
1000 In general, it becomes safe to allow the root user in a user namespace to
1001 use those features because it is impossible, while in a user namespace,
1002 to gain more privilege than the root user of a user namespace has.
1004 .\" ============================================================
1007 Use of user namespaces requires a kernel that is configured with the
1010 User namespaces require support in a range of subsystems across
1012 When an unsupported subsystem is configured into the kernel,
1013 it is not possible to configure user namespaces support.
1015 As at Linux 3.8, most relevant subsystems supported user namespaces,
1016 but a number of filesystems did not have the infrastructure needed
1017 to map user and group IDs between user namespaces.
1018 Linux 3.9 added the required infrastructure support for many of
1019 the remaining unsupported filesystems
1020 (Plan 9 (9P), Andrew File System (AFS), Ceph, CIFS, CODA, NFS, and OCFS2).
1021 Linux 3.12 added support for the last of the unsupported major filesystems,
1022 .\" commit d6970d4b726cea6d7a9bc4120814f95c09571fc3
1026 The program below is designed to allow experimenting with
1027 user namespaces, as well as other types of namespaces.
1028 It creates namespaces as specified by command-line options and then executes
1029 a command inside those namespaces.
1032 function inside the program provide a full explanation of the program.
1033 The following shell session demonstrates its use.
1035 First, we look at the run-time environment:
1039 $ \fBuname \-rs\fP # Need Linux 3.8 or later
1041 $ \fBid \-u\fP # Running as unprivileged user
1048 Now start a new shell in new user
1054 namespaces, with user ID
1058 1000 mapped to 0 inside the user namespace:
1062 $ \fB./userns_child_exec \-p \-m \-U \-M \(aq0 1000 1\(aq \-G \(aq0 1000 1\(aq bash\fP
1066 The shell has PID 1, because it is the first process in the new
1078 filesystem and listing all of the processes visible
1079 in the new PID namespace shows that the shell can't see
1080 any processes outside the PID namespace:
1084 bash$ \fBmount \-t proc proc /proc\fP
1086 PID TTY STAT TIME COMMAND
1088 22 pts/3 R+ 0:00 ps ax
1092 Inside the user namespace, the shell has user and group ID 0,
1093 and a full set of permitted and effective capabilities:
1097 bash$ \fBcat /proc/$$/status | egrep \(aq\(ha[UG]id\(aq\fP
1100 bash$ \fBcat /proc/$$/status | egrep \(aq\(haCap(Prm|Inh|Eff)\(aq\fP
1101 CapInh: 0000000000000000
1102 CapPrm: 0000001fffffffff
1103 CapEff: 0000001fffffffff
1109 /* userns_child_exec.c
1111 Licensed under GNU General Public License v2 or later
1113 Create a child process that executes a shell command in new
1114 namespace(s); allow UID and GID mappings to be specified when
1115 creating a user namespace.
1122 #include <sys/wait.h>
1130 /* A simple error\-handling function: print an error message based
1131 on the value in \(aqerrno\(aq and terminate the calling process. */
1133 #define errExit(msg) do { perror(msg); exit(EXIT_FAILURE); \e
1137 char **argv; /* Command to be executed by child, with args */
1138 int pipe_fd[2]; /* Pipe used to synchronize parent and child */
1146 fprintf(stderr, "Usage: %s [options] cmd [arg...]\en\en", pname);
1147 fprintf(stderr, "Create a child process that executes a shell "
1148 "command in a new user namespace,\en"
1149 "and possibly also other new namespace(s).\en\en");
1150 fprintf(stderr, "Options can be:\en\en");
1151 #define fpe(str) fprintf(stderr, " %s", str);
1152 fpe("\-i New IPC namespace\en");
1153 fpe("\-m New mount namespace\en");
1154 fpe("\-n New network namespace\en");
1155 fpe("\-p New PID namespace\en");
1156 fpe("\-u New UTS namespace\en");
1157 fpe("\-U New user namespace\en");
1158 fpe("\-M uid_map Specify UID map for user namespace\en");
1159 fpe("\-G gid_map Specify GID map for user namespace\en");
1160 fpe("\-z Map user\(aqs UID and GID to 0 in user namespace\en");
1161 fpe(" (equivalent to: \-M \(aq0 <uid> 1\(aq \-G \(aq0 <gid> 1\(aq)\en");
1162 fpe("\-v Display verbose messages\en");
1164 fpe("If \-z, \-M, or \-G is specified, \-U is required.\en");
1165 fpe("It is not permitted to specify both \-z and either \-M or \-G.\en");
1167 fpe("Map strings for \-M and \-G consist of records of the form:\en");
1169 fpe(" ID\-inside\-ns ID\-outside\-ns len\en");
1171 fpe("A map string can contain multiple records, separated"
1173 fpe("the commas are replaced by newlines before writing"
1174 " to map files.\en");
1179 /* Update the mapping file \(aqmap_file\(aq, with the value provided in
1180 \(aqmapping\(aq, a string that defines a UID or GID mapping. A UID or
1181 GID mapping consists of one or more newline\-delimited records
1184 ID_inside\-ns ID\-outside\-ns length
1186 Requiring the user to supply a string that contains newlines is
1187 of course inconvenient for command\-line use. Thus, we permit the
1188 use of commas to delimit records in this string, and replace them
1189 with newlines before writing the string to the file. */
1192 update_map(char *mapping, char *map_file)
1195 size_t map_len; /* Length of \(aqmapping\(aq */
1197 /* Replace commas in mapping string with newlines. */
1199 map_len = strlen(mapping);
1200 for (int j = 0; j < map_len; j++)
1201 if (mapping[j] == \(aq,\(aq)
1202 mapping[j] = \(aq\en\(aq;
1204 fd = open(map_file, O_RDWR);
1206 fprintf(stderr, "ERROR: open %s: %s\en", map_file,
1211 if (write(fd, mapping, map_len) != map_len) {
1212 fprintf(stderr, "ERROR: write %s: %s\en", map_file,
1220 /* Linux 3.19 made a change in the handling of setgroups(2) and the
1221 \(aqgid_map\(aq file to address a security issue. The issue allowed
1222 *unprivileged* users to employ user namespaces in order to drop
1223 The upshot of the 3.19 changes is that in order to update the
1224 \(aqgid_maps\(aq file, use of the setgroups() system call in this
1225 user namespace must first be disabled by writing "deny" to one of
1226 the /proc/PID/setgroups files for this namespace. That is the
1227 purpose of the following function. */
1230 proc_setgroups_write(pid_t child_pid, char *str)
1232 char setgroups_path[PATH_MAX];
1235 snprintf(setgroups_path, PATH_MAX, "/proc/%jd/setgroups",
1236 (intmax_t) child_pid);
1238 fd = open(setgroups_path, O_RDWR);
1241 /* We may be on a system that doesn\(aqt support
1242 /proc/PID/setgroups. In that case, the file won\(aqt exist,
1243 and the system won\(aqt impose the restrictions that Linux 3.19
1244 added. That\(aqs fine: we don\(aqt need to do anything in order
1245 to permit \(aqgid_map\(aq to be updated.
1247 However, if the error from open() was something other than
1248 the ENOENT error that is expected for that case, let the
1251 if (errno != ENOENT)
1252 fprintf(stderr, "ERROR: open %s: %s\en", setgroups_path,
1257 if (write(fd, str, strlen(str)) == \-1)
1258 fprintf(stderr, "ERROR: write %s: %s\en", setgroups_path,
1264 static int /* Start function for cloned child */
1265 childFunc(void *arg)
1267 struct child_args *args = arg;
1270 /* Wait until the parent has updated the UID and GID mappings.
1271 See the comment in main(). We wait for end of file on a
1272 pipe that will be closed by the parent process once it has
1273 updated the mappings. */
1275 close(args\->pipe_fd[1]); /* Close our descriptor for the write
1276 end of the pipe so that we see EOF
1277 when parent closes its descriptor. */
1278 if (read(args\->pipe_fd[0], &ch, 1) != 0) {
1280 "Failure in child: read from pipe returned != 0\en");
1284 close(args\->pipe_fd[0]);
1286 /* Execute a shell command. */
1288 printf("About to exec %s\en", args\->argv[0]);
1289 execvp(args\->argv[0], args\->argv);
1293 #define STACK_SIZE (1024 * 1024)
1295 static char child_stack[STACK_SIZE]; /* Space for child\(aqs stack */
1298 main(int argc, char *argv[])
1300 int flags, opt, map_zero;
1302 struct child_args args;
1303 char *uid_map, *gid_map;
1304 const int MAP_BUF_SIZE = 100;
1305 char map_buf[MAP_BUF_SIZE];
1306 char map_path[PATH_MAX];
1308 /* Parse command\-line options. The initial \(aq+\(aq character in
1309 the final getopt() argument prevents GNU\-style permutation
1310 of command\-line options. That\(aqs useful, since sometimes
1311 the \(aqcommand\(aq to be executed by this program itself
1312 has command\-line options. We don\(aqt want getopt() to treat
1313 those as options to this program. */
1320 while ((opt = getopt(argc, argv, "+imnpuUM:G:zv")) != \-1) {
1322 case \(aqi\(aq: flags |= CLONE_NEWIPC; break;
1323 case \(aqm\(aq: flags |= CLONE_NEWNS; break;
1324 case \(aqn\(aq: flags |= CLONE_NEWNET; break;
1325 case \(aqp\(aq: flags |= CLONE_NEWPID; break;
1326 case \(aqu\(aq: flags |= CLONE_NEWUTS; break;
1327 case \(aqv\(aq: verbose = 1; break;
1328 case \(aqz\(aq: map_zero = 1; break;
1329 case \(aqM\(aq: uid_map = optarg; break;
1330 case \(aqG\(aq: gid_map = optarg; break;
1331 case \(aqU\(aq: flags |= CLONE_NEWUSER; break;
1332 default: usage(argv[0]);
1336 /* \-M or \-G without \-U is nonsensical */
1338 if (((uid_map != NULL || gid_map != NULL || map_zero) &&
1339 !(flags & CLONE_NEWUSER)) ||
1340 (map_zero && (uid_map != NULL || gid_map != NULL)))
1343 args.argv = &argv[optind];
1345 /* We use a pipe to synchronize the parent and child, in order to
1346 ensure that the parent sets the UID and GID maps before the child
1347 calls execve(). This ensures that the child maintains its
1348 capabilities during the execve() in the common case where we
1349 want to map the child\(aqs effective user ID to 0 in the new user
1350 namespace. Without this synchronization, the child would lose
1351 its capabilities if it performed an execve() with nonzero
1352 user IDs (see the capabilities(7) man page for details of the
1353 transformation of a process\(aqs capabilities during execve()). */
1355 if (pipe(args.pipe_fd) == \-1)
1358 /* Create the child in new namespace(s). */
1360 child_pid = clone(childFunc, child_stack + STACK_SIZE,
1361 flags | SIGCHLD, &args);
1362 if (child_pid == \-1)
1365 /* Parent falls through to here. */
1368 printf("%s: PID of child created by clone() is %jd\en",
1369 argv[0], (intmax_t) child_pid);
1371 /* Update the UID and GID maps in the child. */
1373 if (uid_map != NULL || map_zero) {
1374 snprintf(map_path, PATH_MAX, "/proc/%jd/uid_map",
1375 (intmax_t) child_pid);
1377 snprintf(map_buf, MAP_BUF_SIZE, "0 %jd 1",
1378 (intmax_t) getuid());
1381 update_map(uid_map, map_path);
1384 if (gid_map != NULL || map_zero) {
1385 proc_setgroups_write(child_pid, "deny");
1387 snprintf(map_path, PATH_MAX, "/proc/%jd/gid_map",
1388 (intmax_t) child_pid);
1390 snprintf(map_buf, MAP_BUF_SIZE, "0 %ld 1",
1391 (intmax_t) getgid());
1394 update_map(gid_map, map_path);
1397 /* Close the write end of the pipe, to signal to the child that we
1398 have updated the UID and GID maps. */
1400 close(args.pipe_fd[1]);
1402 if (waitpid(child_pid, NULL, 0) == \-1) /* Wait for child */
1406 printf("%s: terminating\en", argv[0]);
1412 .BR newgidmap (1), \" From the shadow package
1413 .BR newuidmap (1), \" From the shadow package
1419 .BR subgid (5), \" From the shadow package
1420 .BR subuid (5), \" From the shadow package
1421 .BR capabilities (7),
1422 .BR cgroup_namespaces (7),
1423 .BR credentials (7),
1425 .BR pid_namespaces (7)
1427 The kernel source file
1428 .IR Documentation/admin\-guide/namespaces/resource\-control.rst .