2 Overview of the Linux Virtual File System
4 Original author: Richard Gooch <rgooch@atnf.csiro.au>
6 Last updated on October 28, 2005
8 Copyright (C) 1999 Richard Gooch
9 Copyright (C) 2005 Pekka Enberg
11 This file is released under the GPLv2.
17 The Virtual File System (also known as the Virtual Filesystem Switch)
18 is the software layer in the kernel that provides the filesystem
19 interface to userspace programs. It also provides an abstraction
20 within the kernel which allows different filesystem implementations to
23 VFS system calls open(2), stat(2), read(2), write(2), chmod(2) and so
24 on are called from a process context. Filesystem locking is described
25 in the document Documentation/filesystems/Locking.
28 Directory Entry Cache (dcache)
29 ------------------------------
31 The VFS implements the open(2), stat(2), chmod(2), and similar system
32 calls. The pathname argument that is passed to them is used by the VFS
33 to search through the directory entry cache (also known as the dentry
34 cache or dcache). This provides a very fast look-up mechanism to
35 translate a pathname (filename) into a specific dentry. Dentries live
36 in RAM and are never saved to disc: they exist only for performance.
38 The dentry cache is meant to be a view into your entire filespace. As
39 most computers cannot fit all dentries in the RAM at the same time,
40 some bits of the cache are missing. In order to resolve your pathname
41 into a dentry, the VFS may have to resort to creating dentries along
42 the way, and then loading the inode. This is done by looking up the
49 An individual dentry usually has a pointer to an inode. Inodes are
50 filesystem objects such as regular files, directories, FIFOs and other
51 beasts. They live either on the disc (for block device filesystems)
52 or in the memory (for pseudo filesystems). Inodes that live on the
53 disc are copied into the memory when required and changes to the inode
54 are written back to disc. A single inode can be pointed to by multiple
55 dentries (hard links, for example, do this).
57 To look up an inode requires that the VFS calls the lookup() method of
58 the parent directory inode. This method is installed by the specific
59 filesystem implementation that the inode lives in. Once the VFS has
60 the required dentry (and hence the inode), we can do all those boring
61 things like open(2) the file, or stat(2) it to peek at the inode
62 data. The stat(2) operation is fairly simple: once the VFS has the
63 dentry, it peeks at the inode data and passes some of it back to
70 Opening a file requires another operation: allocation of a file
71 structure (this is the kernel-side implementation of file
72 descriptors). The freshly allocated file structure is initialized with
73 a pointer to the dentry and a set of file operation member functions.
74 These are taken from the inode data. The open() file method is then
75 called so the specific filesystem implementation can do it's work. You
76 can see that this is another switch performed by the VFS. The file
77 structure is placed into the file descriptor table for the process.
79 Reading, writing and closing files (and other assorted VFS operations)
80 is done by using the userspace file descriptor to grab the appropriate
81 file structure, and then calling the required file structure method to
82 do whatever is required. For as long as the file is open, it keeps the
83 dentry in use, which in turn means that the VFS inode is still in use.
86 Registering and Mounting a Filesystem
87 =====================================
89 To register and unregister a filesystem, use the following API
94 extern int register_filesystem(struct file_system_type *);
95 extern int unregister_filesystem(struct file_system_type *);
97 The passed struct file_system_type describes your filesystem. When a
98 request is made to mount a device onto a directory in your filespace,
99 the VFS will call the appropriate get_sb() method for the specific
100 filesystem. The dentry for the mount point will then be updated to
101 point to the root inode for the new filesystem.
103 You can see all filesystems that are registered to the kernel in the
104 file /proc/filesystems.
107 struct file_system_type
108 -----------------------
110 This describes the filesystem. As of kernel 2.6.13, the following
113 struct file_system_type {
116 struct super_block *(*get_sb) (struct file_system_type *, int,
117 const char *, void *);
118 void (*kill_sb) (struct super_block *);
119 struct module *owner;
120 struct file_system_type * next;
121 struct list_head fs_supers;
124 name: the name of the filesystem type, such as "ext2", "iso9660",
127 fs_flags: various flags (i.e. FS_REQUIRES_DEV, FS_NO_DCACHE, etc.)
129 get_sb: the method to call when a new instance of this
130 filesystem should be mounted
132 kill_sb: the method to call when an instance of this filesystem
135 owner: for internal VFS use: you should initialize this to THIS_MODULE in
138 next: for internal VFS use: you should initialize this to NULL
140 The get_sb() method has the following arguments:
142 struct super_block *sb: the superblock structure. This is partially
143 initialized by the VFS and the rest must be initialized by the
146 int flags: mount flags
148 const char *dev_name: the device name we are mounting.
150 void *data: arbitrary mount options, usually comes as an ASCII
153 int silent: whether or not to be silent on error
155 The get_sb() method must determine if the block device specified
156 in the superblock contains a filesystem of the type the method
157 supports. On success the method returns the superblock pointer, on
158 failure it returns NULL.
160 The most interesting member of the superblock structure that the
161 get_sb() method fills in is the "s_op" field. This is a pointer to
162 a "struct super_operations" which describes the next level of the
163 filesystem implementation.
165 Usually, a filesystem uses one of the generic get_sb() implementations
166 and provides a fill_super() method instead. The generic methods are:
168 get_sb_bdev: mount a filesystem residing on a block device
170 get_sb_nodev: mount a filesystem that is not backed by a device
172 get_sb_single: mount a filesystem which shares the instance between
175 A fill_super() method implementation has the following arguments:
177 struct super_block *sb: the superblock structure. The method fill_super()
178 must initialize this properly.
180 void *data: arbitrary mount options, usually comes as an ASCII
183 int silent: whether or not to be silent on error
186 The Superblock Object
187 =====================
189 A superblock object represents a mounted filesystem.
192 struct super_operations
193 -----------------------
195 This describes how the VFS can manipulate the superblock of your
196 filesystem. As of kernel 2.6.13, the following members are defined:
198 struct super_operations {
199 struct inode *(*alloc_inode)(struct super_block *sb);
200 void (*destroy_inode)(struct inode *);
202 void (*read_inode) (struct inode *);
204 void (*dirty_inode) (struct inode *);
205 int (*write_inode) (struct inode *, int);
206 void (*put_inode) (struct inode *);
207 void (*drop_inode) (struct inode *);
208 void (*delete_inode) (struct inode *);
209 void (*put_super) (struct super_block *);
210 void (*write_super) (struct super_block *);
211 int (*sync_fs)(struct super_block *sb, int wait);
212 void (*write_super_lockfs) (struct super_block *);
213 void (*unlockfs) (struct super_block *);
214 int (*statfs) (struct super_block *, struct kstatfs *);
215 int (*remount_fs) (struct super_block *, int *, char *);
216 void (*clear_inode) (struct inode *);
217 void (*umount_begin) (struct super_block *);
219 void (*sync_inodes) (struct super_block *sb,
220 struct writeback_control *wbc);
221 int (*show_options)(struct seq_file *, struct vfsmount *);
223 ssize_t (*quota_read)(struct super_block *, int, char *, size_t, loff_t);
224 ssize_t (*quota_write)(struct super_block *, int, const char *, size_t, loff_t);
227 All methods are called without any locks being held, unless otherwise
228 noted. This means that most methods can block safely. All methods are
229 only called from a process context (i.e. not from an interrupt handler
232 alloc_inode: this method is called by inode_alloc() to allocate memory
233 for struct inode and initialize it.
235 destroy_inode: this method is called by destroy_inode() to release
236 resources allocated for struct inode.
238 read_inode: this method is called to read a specific inode from the
239 mounted filesystem. The i_ino member in the struct inode is
240 initialized by the VFS to indicate which inode to read. Other
241 members are filled in by this method.
243 You can set this to NULL and use iget5_locked() instead of iget()
244 to read inodes. This is necessary for filesystems for which the
245 inode number is not sufficient to identify an inode.
247 dirty_inode: this method is called by the VFS to mark an inode dirty.
249 write_inode: this method is called when the VFS needs to write an
250 inode to disc. The second parameter indicates whether the write
251 should be synchronous or not, not all filesystems check this flag.
253 put_inode: called when the VFS inode is removed from the inode
256 drop_inode: called when the last access to the inode is dropped,
257 with the inode_lock spinlock held.
259 This method should be either NULL (normal UNIX filesystem
260 semantics) or "generic_delete_inode" (for filesystems that do not
261 want to cache inodes - causing "delete_inode" to always be
262 called regardless of the value of i_nlink)
264 The "generic_delete_inode()" behavior is equivalent to the
265 old practice of using "force_delete" in the put_inode() case,
266 but does not have the races that the "force_delete()" approach
269 delete_inode: called when the VFS wants to delete an inode
271 put_super: called when the VFS wishes to free the superblock
272 (i.e. unmount). This is called with the superblock lock held
274 write_super: called when the VFS superblock needs to be written to
275 disc. This method is optional
277 sync_fs: called when VFS is writing out all dirty data associated with
278 a superblock. The second parameter indicates whether the method
279 should wait until the write out has been completed. Optional.
281 write_super_lockfs: called when VFS is locking a filesystem and
282 forcing it into a consistent state. This method is currently
283 used by the Logical Volume Manager (LVM).
285 unlockfs: called when VFS is unlocking a filesystem and making it writable
288 statfs: called when the VFS needs to get filesystem statistics. This
289 is called with the kernel lock held
291 remount_fs: called when the filesystem is remounted. This is called
292 with the kernel lock held
294 clear_inode: called then the VFS clears the inode. Optional
296 umount_begin: called when the VFS is unmounting a filesystem.
298 sync_inodes: called when the VFS is writing out dirty data associated with
301 show_options: called by the VFS to show mount options for /proc/<pid>/mounts.
303 quota_read: called by the VFS to read from filesystem quota file.
305 quota_write: called by the VFS to write to filesystem quota file.
307 The read_inode() method is responsible for filling in the "i_op"
308 field. This is a pointer to a "struct inode_operations" which
309 describes the methods that can be performed on individual inodes.
315 An inode object represents an object within the filesystem.
318 struct inode_operations
319 -----------------------
321 This describes how the VFS can manipulate an inode in your
322 filesystem. As of kernel 2.6.13, the following members are defined:
324 struct inode_operations {
325 int (*create) (struct inode *,struct dentry *,int, struct nameidata *);
326 struct dentry * (*lookup) (struct inode *,struct dentry *, struct nameidata *);
327 int (*link) (struct dentry *,struct inode *,struct dentry *);
328 int (*unlink) (struct inode *,struct dentry *);
329 int (*symlink) (struct inode *,struct dentry *,const char *);
330 int (*mkdir) (struct inode *,struct dentry *,int);
331 int (*rmdir) (struct inode *,struct dentry *);
332 int (*mknod) (struct inode *,struct dentry *,int,dev_t);
333 int (*rename) (struct inode *, struct dentry *,
334 struct inode *, struct dentry *);
335 int (*readlink) (struct dentry *, char __user *,int);
336 void * (*follow_link) (struct dentry *, struct nameidata *);
337 void (*put_link) (struct dentry *, struct nameidata *, void *);
338 void (*truncate) (struct inode *);
339 int (*permission) (struct inode *, int, struct nameidata *);
340 int (*setattr) (struct dentry *, struct iattr *);
341 int (*getattr) (struct vfsmount *mnt, struct dentry *, struct kstat *);
342 int (*setxattr) (struct dentry *, const char *,const void *,size_t,int);
343 ssize_t (*getxattr) (struct dentry *, const char *, void *, size_t);
344 ssize_t (*listxattr) (struct dentry *, char *, size_t);
345 int (*removexattr) (struct dentry *, const char *);
348 Again, all methods are called without any locks being held, unless
351 create: called by the open(2) and creat(2) system calls. Only
352 required if you want to support regular files. The dentry you
353 get should not have an inode (i.e. it should be a negative
354 dentry). Here you will probably call d_instantiate() with the
355 dentry and the newly created inode
357 lookup: called when the VFS needs to look up an inode in a parent
358 directory. The name to look for is found in the dentry. This
359 method must call d_add() to insert the found inode into the
360 dentry. The "i_count" field in the inode structure should be
361 incremented. If the named inode does not exist a NULL inode
362 should be inserted into the dentry (this is called a negative
363 dentry). Returning an error code from this routine must only
364 be done on a real error, otherwise creating inodes with system
365 calls like create(2), mknod(2), mkdir(2) and so on will fail.
366 If you wish to overload the dentry methods then you should
367 initialise the "d_dop" field in the dentry; this is a pointer
368 to a struct "dentry_operations".
369 This method is called with the directory inode semaphore held
371 link: called by the link(2) system call. Only required if you want
372 to support hard links. You will probably need to call
373 d_instantiate() just as you would in the create() method
375 unlink: called by the unlink(2) system call. Only required if you
376 want to support deleting inodes
378 symlink: called by the symlink(2) system call. Only required if you
379 want to support symlinks. You will probably need to call
380 d_instantiate() just as you would in the create() method
382 mkdir: called by the mkdir(2) system call. Only required if you want
383 to support creating subdirectories. You will probably need to
384 call d_instantiate() just as you would in the create() method
386 rmdir: called by the rmdir(2) system call. Only required if you want
387 to support deleting subdirectories
389 mknod: called by the mknod(2) system call to create a device (char,
390 block) inode or a named pipe (FIFO) or socket. Only required
391 if you want to support creating these types of inodes. You
392 will probably need to call d_instantiate() just as you would
393 in the create() method
395 rename: called by the rename(2) system call to rename the object to
396 have the parent and name given by the second inode and dentry.
398 readlink: called by the readlink(2) system call. Only required if
399 you want to support reading symbolic links
401 follow_link: called by the VFS to follow a symbolic link to the
402 inode it points to. Only required if you want to support
403 symbolic links. This method returns a void pointer cookie
404 that is passed to put_link().
406 put_link: called by the VFS to release resources allocated by
407 follow_link(). The cookie returned by follow_link() is passed
408 to to this method as the last parameter. It is used by
409 filesystems such as NFS where page cache is not stable
410 (i.e. page that was installed when the symbolic link walk
411 started might not be in the page cache at the end of the
414 truncate: called by the VFS to change the size of a file. The
415 i_size field of the inode is set to the desired size by the
416 VFS before this method is called. This method is called by
417 the truncate(2) system call and related functionality.
419 permission: called by the VFS to check for access rights on a POSIX-like
422 setattr: called by the VFS to set attributes for a file. This method
423 is called by chmod(2) and related system calls.
425 getattr: called by the VFS to get attributes of a file. This method
426 is called by stat(2) and related system calls.
428 setxattr: called by the VFS to set an extended attribute for a file.
429 Extended attribute is a name:value pair associated with an
430 inode. This method is called by setxattr(2) system call.
432 getxattr: called by the VFS to retrieve the value of an extended
433 attribute name. This method is called by getxattr(2) function
436 listxattr: called by the VFS to list all extended attributes for a
437 given file. This method is called by listxattr(2) system call.
439 removexattr: called by the VFS to remove an extended attribute from
440 a file. This method is called by removexattr(2) system call.
443 The Address Space Object
444 ========================
446 The address space object is used to identify pages in the page cache.
449 struct address_space_operations
450 -------------------------------
452 This describes how the VFS can manipulate mapping of a file to page cache in
453 your filesystem. As of kernel 2.6.13, the following members are defined:
455 struct address_space_operations {
456 int (*writepage)(struct page *page, struct writeback_control *wbc);
457 int (*readpage)(struct file *, struct page *);
458 int (*sync_page)(struct page *);
459 int (*writepages)(struct address_space *, struct writeback_control *);
460 int (*set_page_dirty)(struct page *page);
461 int (*readpages)(struct file *filp, struct address_space *mapping,
462 struct list_head *pages, unsigned nr_pages);
463 int (*prepare_write)(struct file *, struct page *, unsigned, unsigned);
464 int (*commit_write)(struct file *, struct page *, unsigned, unsigned);
465 sector_t (*bmap)(struct address_space *, sector_t);
466 int (*invalidatepage) (struct page *, unsigned long);
467 int (*releasepage) (struct page *, int);
468 ssize_t (*direct_IO)(int, struct kiocb *, const struct iovec *iov,
469 loff_t offset, unsigned long nr_segs);
470 struct page* (*get_xip_page)(struct address_space *, sector_t,
474 writepage: called by the VM write a dirty page to backing store.
476 readpage: called by the VM to read a page from backing store.
478 sync_page: called by the VM to notify the backing store to perform all
479 queued I/O operations for a page. I/O operations for other pages
480 associated with this address_space object may also be performed.
482 writepages: called by the VM to write out pages associated with the
483 address_space object.
485 set_page_dirty: called by the VM to set a page dirty.
487 readpages: called by the VM to read pages associated with the address_space
490 prepare_write: called by the generic write path in VM to set up a write
493 commit_write: called by the generic write path in VM to write page to
496 bmap: called by the VFS to map a logical block offset within object to
497 physical block number. This method is use by for the legacy FIBMAP
498 ioctl. Other uses are discouraged.
500 invalidatepage: called by the VM on truncate to disassociate a page from its
501 address_space mapping.
503 releasepage: called by the VFS to release filesystem specific metadata from
506 direct_IO: called by the VM for direct I/O writes and reads.
508 get_xip_page: called by the VM to translate a block number to a page.
509 The page is valid until the corresponding filesystem is unmounted.
510 Filesystems that want to use execute-in-place (XIP) need to implement
511 it. An example implementation can be found in fs/ext2/xip.c.
517 A file object represents a file opened by a process.
520 struct file_operations
521 ----------------------
523 This describes how the VFS can manipulate an open file. As of kernel
524 2.6.13, the following members are defined:
526 struct file_operations {
527 loff_t (*llseek) (struct file *, loff_t, int);
528 ssize_t (*read) (struct file *, char __user *, size_t, loff_t *);
529 ssize_t (*aio_read) (struct kiocb *, char __user *, size_t, loff_t);
530 ssize_t (*write) (struct file *, const char __user *, size_t, loff_t *);
531 ssize_t (*aio_write) (struct kiocb *, const char __user *, size_t, loff_t);
532 int (*readdir) (struct file *, void *, filldir_t);
533 unsigned int (*poll) (struct file *, struct poll_table_struct *);
534 int (*ioctl) (struct inode *, struct file *, unsigned int, unsigned long);
535 long (*unlocked_ioctl) (struct file *, unsigned int, unsigned long);
536 long (*compat_ioctl) (struct file *, unsigned int, unsigned long);
537 int (*mmap) (struct file *, struct vm_area_struct *);
538 int (*open) (struct inode *, struct file *);
539 int (*flush) (struct file *);
540 int (*release) (struct inode *, struct file *);
541 int (*fsync) (struct file *, struct dentry *, int datasync);
542 int (*aio_fsync) (struct kiocb *, int datasync);
543 int (*fasync) (int, struct file *, int);
544 int (*lock) (struct file *, int, struct file_lock *);
545 ssize_t (*readv) (struct file *, const struct iovec *, unsigned long, loff_t *);
546 ssize_t (*writev) (struct file *, const struct iovec *, unsigned long, loff_t *);
547 ssize_t (*sendfile) (struct file *, loff_t *, size_t, read_actor_t, void *);
548 ssize_t (*sendpage) (struct file *, struct page *, int, size_t, loff_t *, int);
549 unsigned long (*get_unmapped_area)(struct file *, unsigned long, unsigned long, unsigned long, unsigned long);
550 int (*check_flags)(int);
551 int (*dir_notify)(struct file *filp, unsigned long arg);
552 int (*flock) (struct file *, int, struct file_lock *);
555 Again, all methods are called without any locks being held, unless
558 llseek: called when the VFS needs to move the file position index
560 read: called by read(2) and related system calls
562 aio_read: called by io_submit(2) and other asynchronous I/O operations
564 write: called by write(2) and related system calls
566 aio_write: called by io_submit(2) and other asynchronous I/O operations
568 readdir: called when the VFS needs to read the directory contents
570 poll: called by the VFS when a process wants to check if there is
571 activity on this file and (optionally) go to sleep until there
572 is activity. Called by the select(2) and poll(2) system calls
574 ioctl: called by the ioctl(2) system call
576 unlocked_ioctl: called by the ioctl(2) system call. Filesystems that do not
577 require the BKL should use this method instead of the ioctl() above.
579 compat_ioctl: called by the ioctl(2) system call when 32 bit system calls
580 are used on 64 bit kernels.
582 mmap: called by the mmap(2) system call
584 open: called by the VFS when an inode should be opened. When the VFS
585 opens a file, it creates a new "struct file". It then calls the
586 open method for the newly allocated file structure. You might
587 think that the open method really belongs in
588 "struct inode_operations", and you may be right. I think it's
589 done the way it is because it makes filesystems simpler to
590 implement. The open() method is a good place to initialize the
591 "private_data" member in the file structure if you want to point
592 to a device structure
594 flush: called by the close(2) system call to flush a file
596 release: called when the last reference to an open file is closed
598 fsync: called by the fsync(2) system call
600 fasync: called by the fcntl(2) system call when asynchronous
601 (non-blocking) mode is enabled for a file
603 lock: called by the fcntl(2) system call for F_GETLK, F_SETLK, and F_SETLKW
606 readv: called by the readv(2) system call
608 writev: called by the writev(2) system call
610 sendfile: called by the sendfile(2) system call
612 get_unmapped_area: called by the mmap(2) system call
614 check_flags: called by the fcntl(2) system call for F_SETFL command
616 dir_notify: called by the fcntl(2) system call for F_NOTIFY command
618 flock: called by the flock(2) system call
620 Note that the file operations are implemented by the specific
621 filesystem in which the inode resides. When opening a device node
622 (character or block special) most filesystems will call special
623 support routines in the VFS which will locate the required device
624 driver information. These support routines replace the filesystem file
625 operations with those for the device driver, and then proceed to call
626 the new open() method for the file. This is how opening a device file
627 in the filesystem eventually ends up calling the device driver open()
631 Directory Entry Cache (dcache)
632 ==============================
635 struct dentry_operations
636 ------------------------
638 This describes how a filesystem can overload the standard dentry
639 operations. Dentries and the dcache are the domain of the VFS and the
640 individual filesystem implementations. Device drivers have no business
641 here. These methods may be set to NULL, as they are either optional or
642 the VFS uses a default. As of kernel 2.6.13, the following members are
645 struct dentry_operations {
646 int (*d_revalidate)(struct dentry *, struct nameidata *);
647 int (*d_hash) (struct dentry *, struct qstr *);
648 int (*d_compare) (struct dentry *, struct qstr *, struct qstr *);
649 int (*d_delete)(struct dentry *);
650 void (*d_release)(struct dentry *);
651 void (*d_iput)(struct dentry *, struct inode *);
654 d_revalidate: called when the VFS needs to revalidate a dentry. This
655 is called whenever a name look-up finds a dentry in the
656 dcache. Most filesystems leave this as NULL, because all their
657 dentries in the dcache are valid
659 d_hash: called when the VFS adds a dentry to the hash table
661 d_compare: called when a dentry should be compared with another
663 d_delete: called when the last reference to a dentry is
664 deleted. This means no-one is using the dentry, however it is
665 still valid and in the dcache
667 d_release: called when a dentry is really deallocated
669 d_iput: called when a dentry loses its inode (just prior to its
670 being deallocated). The default when this is NULL is that the
671 VFS calls iput(). If you define this method, you must call
674 Each dentry has a pointer to its parent dentry, as well as a hash list
675 of child dentries. Child dentries are basically like files in a
679 Directory Entry Cache API
680 --------------------------
682 There are a number of functions defined which permit a filesystem to
685 dget: open a new handle for an existing dentry (this just increments
688 dput: close a handle for a dentry (decrements the usage count). If
689 the usage count drops to 0, the "d_delete" method is called
690 and the dentry is placed on the unused list if the dentry is
691 still in its parents hash list. Putting the dentry on the
692 unused list just means that if the system needs some RAM, it
693 goes through the unused list of dentries and deallocates them.
694 If the dentry has already been unhashed and the usage count
695 drops to 0, in this case the dentry is deallocated after the
696 "d_delete" method is called
698 d_drop: this unhashes a dentry from its parents hash list. A
699 subsequent call to dput() will deallocate the dentry if its
700 usage count drops to 0
702 d_delete: delete a dentry. If there are no other open references to
703 the dentry then the dentry is turned into a negative dentry
704 (the d_iput() method is called). If there are other
705 references, then d_drop() is called instead
707 d_add: add a dentry to its parents hash list and then calls
710 d_instantiate: add a dentry to the alias hash list for the inode and
711 updates the "d_inode" member. The "i_count" member in the
712 inode structure should be set/incremented. If the inode
713 pointer is NULL, the dentry is called a "negative
714 dentry". This function is commonly called when an inode is
715 created for an existing negative dentry
717 d_lookup: look up a dentry given its parent and path name component
718 It looks up the child of that given name from the dcache
719 hash table. If it is found, the reference count is incremented
720 and the dentry is returned. The caller must use d_put()
721 to free the dentry when it finishes using it.
723 For further information on dentry locking, please refer to the document
724 Documentation/filesystems/dentry-locking.txt.
730 (Note some of these resources are not up-to-date with the latest kernel
733 Creating Linux virtual filesystems. 2002
734 <http://lwn.net/Articles/13325/>
736 The Linux Virtual File-system Layer by Neil Brown. 1999
737 <http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~neilb/oss/linux-commentary/vfs.html>
739 A tour of the Linux VFS by Michael K. Johnson. 1996
740 <http://www.tldp.org/LDP/khg/HyperNews/get/fs/vfstour.html>
742 A small trail through the Linux kernel by Andries Brouwer. 2001
743 <http://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/linux/vfs/trail.html>