App Engine Python SDK version 1.8.1

[gae.git] / python / lib / protorpc / protorpc / messages.py

#!/usr/bin/env python
#
# Copyright 2010 Google Inc.
#
# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
# You may obtain a copy of the License at
#
#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
#
# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
# limitations under the License.
#

"""Stand-alone implementation of in memory protocol messages.

Public Classes:
  Enum: Represents an enumerated type.
  Variant: Hint for wire format to determine how to serialize.
  Message: Base class for user defined messages.
  IntegerField: Field for integer values.
  FloatField: Field for float values.
  BooleanField: Field for boolean values.
  BytesField: Field for binary string values.
  StringField: Field for UTF-8 string values.
  MessageField: Field for other message type values.
  EnumField: Field for enumerated type values.

Public Exceptions (indentation indications class hierarchy):
  EnumDefinitionError: Raised when enumeration is incorrectly defined.
  FieldDefinitionError: Raised when field is incorrectly defined.
    InvalidVariantError: Raised when variant is not compatible with field type.
    InvalidDefaultError: Raised when default is not compatiable with field.
    InvalidNumberError: Raised when field number is out of range or reserved.
  MessageDefinitionError: Raised when message is incorrectly defined.
    DuplicateNumberError: Raised when field has duplicate number with another.
  ValidationError: Raised when a message or field is not valid.
  DefinitionNotFoundError: Raised when definition not found.
"""

__author__ = 'rafek@google.com (Rafe Kaplan)'


import inspect
import os
import sys
import traceback
import types
import weakref

from . import util

__all__ = ['MAX_ENUM_VALUE',
           'MAX_FIELD_NUMBER',
           'FIRST_RESERVED_FIELD_NUMBER',
           'LAST_RESERVED_FIELD_NUMBER',

           'Enum',
           'Field',
           'FieldList',
           'Variant',
           'Message',
           'IntegerField',
           'FloatField',
           'BooleanField',
           'BytesField',
           'StringField',
           'MessageField',
           'EnumField',
           'find_definition',

           'Error',
           'DecodeError',
           'EncodeError',
           'EnumDefinitionError',
           'FieldDefinitionError',
           'InvalidVariantError',
           'InvalidDefaultError',
           'InvalidNumberError',
           'MessageDefinitionError',
           'DuplicateNumberError',
           'ValidationError',
           'DefinitionNotFoundError',
          ]


# TODO(rafek): Add extended module test to ensure all exceptions
# in services extends Error.
Error = util.Error


class EnumDefinitionError(Error):
  """Enumeration definition error."""


class FieldDefinitionError(Error):
  """Field definition error."""


class InvalidVariantError(FieldDefinitionError):
  """Invalid variant provided to field."""


class InvalidDefaultError(FieldDefinitionError):
  """Invalid default provided to field."""


class InvalidNumberError(FieldDefinitionError):
  """Invalid number provided to field."""


class MessageDefinitionError(Error):
  """Message definition error."""


class DuplicateNumberError(Error):
  """Duplicate number assigned to field."""


class DefinitionNotFoundError(Error):
  """Raised when definition is not found."""


class DecodeError(Error):
  """Error found decoding message from encoded form."""


class EncodeError(Error):
  """Error found when encoding message."""


class ValidationError(Error):
  """Invalid value for message error."""

  def __str__(self):
    """Prints string with field name if present on exception."""
    message = Error.__str__(self)
    try:
      field_name = self.field_name
    except AttributeError:
      return message
    else:
      return message


# Attributes that are reserved by a class definition that
# may not be used by either Enum or Message class definitions.
_RESERVED_ATTRIBUTE_NAMES = frozenset(
    ['__module__', '__doc__'])

_POST_INIT_FIELD_ATTRIBUTE_NAMES = frozenset(
    ['name',
     '_message_definition',
     '_MessageField__type',
     '_EnumField__type',
     '_EnumField__resolved_default'])

_POST_INIT_ATTRIBUTE_NAMES = frozenset(
    ['_message_definition'])

# Maximum enumeration value as defined by the protocol buffers standard.
# All enum values must be less than or equal to this value.
MAX_ENUM_VALUE = (2 ** 29) - 1

# Maximum field number as defined by the protocol buffers standard.
# All field numbers must be less than or equal to this value.
MAX_FIELD_NUMBER = (2 ** 29) - 1

# Field numbers between 19000 and 19999 inclusive are reserved by the
# protobuf protocol and may not be used by fields.
FIRST_RESERVED_FIELD_NUMBER = 19000
LAST_RESERVED_FIELD_NUMBER = 19999


class _DefinitionClass(type):
  """Base meta-class used for definition meta-classes.

  The Enum and Message definition classes share some basic functionality.
  Both of these classes may be contained by a Message definition.  After
  initialization, neither class may have attributes changed
  except for the protected _message_definition attribute, and that attribute
  may change only once.
  """

  __initialized = False

  def __init__(cls, name, bases, dct):
    """Constructor."""
    type.__init__(cls, name, bases, dct)
    # Base classes may never be initialized.
    if cls.__bases__ != (object,):
      cls.__initialized = True

  def message_definition(cls):
    """Get outer Message definition that contains this definition.

    Returns:
      Containing Message definition if definition is contained within one,
      else None.
    """
    try:
      return cls._message_definition()
    except AttributeError:
      return None

  def __setattr__(cls, name, value):
    """Overridden so that cannot set variables on definition classes after init.

    Setting attributes on a class must work during the period of initialization
    to set the enumation value class variables and build the name/number maps.
    Once __init__ has set the __initialized flag to True prohibits setting any
    more values on the class.  The class is in effect frozen.

    Args:
      name: Name of value to set.
      value: Value to set.
    """
    if cls.__initialized and name not in _POST_INIT_ATTRIBUTE_NAMES:
      raise AttributeError('May not change values: %s' % name)
    else:
      type.__setattr__(cls, name, value)

  def __delattr__(cls, name):
    """Overridden so that cannot delete varaibles on definition classes."""
    raise TypeError('May not delete attributes on definition class')

  def definition_name(cls):
    """Helper method for creating definition name.

    Names will be generated to include the classes package name, scope (if the
    class is nested in another definition) and class name.

    By default, the package name for a definition is derived from its module
    name.  However, this value can be overriden by placing a 'package' attribute
    in the module that contains the definition class.  For example:

      package = 'some.alternate.package'

      class MyMessage(Message):
        ...

      >>> MyMessage.definition_name()
      some.alternate.package.MyMessage

    Returns:
      Dot-separated fully qualified name of definition.
    """
    outer_definition_name = cls.outer_definition_name()
    if outer_definition_name is None:
      return unicode(cls.__name__)
    else:
      return u'%s.%s' % (outer_definition_name, cls.__name__)

  def outer_definition_name(cls):
    """Helper method for creating outer definition name.

    Returns:
      If definition is nested, will return the outer definitions name, else the
      package name.
    """
    outer_definition = cls.message_definition()
    if not outer_definition:
      return util.get_package_for_module(cls.__module__)
    else:
      return outer_definition.definition_name()

  def definition_package(cls):
    """Helper method for creating creating the package of a definition.

    Returns:
      Name of package that definition belongs to.
    """
    outer_definition = cls.message_definition()
    if not outer_definition:
      return util.get_package_for_module(cls.__module__)
    else:
      return outer_definition.definition_package()


class _EnumClass(_DefinitionClass):
  """Meta-class used for defining the Enum base class.

  Meta-class enables very specific behavior for any defined Enum
  class.  All attributes defined on an Enum sub-class must be integers.
  Each attribute defined on an Enum sub-class is translated
  into an instance of that sub-class, with the name of the attribute
  as its name, and the number provided as its value.  It also ensures
  that only one level of Enum class hierarchy is possible.  In other
  words it is not possible to delcare sub-classes of sub-classes of
  Enum.

  This class also defines some functions in order to restrict the
  behavior of the Enum class and its sub-classes.  It is not possible
  to change the behavior of the Enum class in later classes since
  any new classes may be defined with only integer values, and no methods.
  """

  def __init__(cls, name, bases, dct):
    # Can only define one level of sub-classes below Enum.
    if not (bases == (object,) or bases == (Enum,)):
      raise EnumDefinitionError('Enum type %s may only inherit from Enum' %
                                (name,))

    cls.__by_number = {}
    cls.__by_name = {}

    # Enum base class does not need to be initialized or locked.
    if bases != (object,):
      # Replace integer with number.
      for attribute, value in dct.iteritems():

        # Module will be in every enum class.
        if attribute in _RESERVED_ATTRIBUTE_NAMES:
          continue

        # Reject anything that is not an int.
        if not isinstance(value, (int, long)):
          raise EnumDefinitionError(
              'May only use integers in Enum definitions.  Found: %s = %s' %
              (attribute, value))

        # Protocol buffer standard recommends non-negative values.
        # Reject negative values.
        if value < 0:
          raise EnumDefinitionError(
              'Must use non-negative enum values.  Found: %s = %d' %
              (attribute, value))

        if value > MAX_ENUM_VALUE:
          raise EnumDefinitionError(
              'Must use enum values less than or equal %d.  Found: %s = %d' %
              (MAX_ENUM_VALUE, attribute, value))

        if value in cls.__by_number:
          raise EnumDefinitionError(
              'Value for %s = %d is already defined: %s' %
              (attribute, value, cls.__by_number[value].name))

        # Create enum instance and list in new Enum type.
        instance = object.__new__(cls)
        cls.__init__(instance, attribute, value)
        cls.__by_name[instance.name] = instance
        cls.__by_number[instance.number] = instance
        setattr(cls, attribute, instance)

    _DefinitionClass.__init__(cls, name, bases, dct)

  def __iter__(cls):
    """Iterate over all values of enum.

    Yields:
      Enumeration instances of the Enum class in arbitrary order.
    """
    return cls.__by_number.itervalues()

  def names(cls):
    """Get all names for Enum.

    Returns:
      An iterator for names of the enumeration in arbitrary order.
    """
    return cls.__by_name.iterkeys()

  def numbers(cls):
    """Get all numbers for Enum.

    Returns:
      An iterator for all numbers of the enumeration in arbitrary order.
    """
    return cls.__by_number.iterkeys()

  def lookup_by_name(cls, name):
    """Look up Enum by name.

    Args:
      name: Name of enum to find.

    Returns:
      Enum sub-class instance of that value.
    """
    return cls.__by_name[name]

  def lookup_by_number(cls, number):
    """Look up Enum by number.

    Args:
      number: Number of enum to find.

    Returns:
      Enum sub-class instance of that value.
    """
    return cls.__by_number[number]

  def __len__(cls):
    return len(cls.__by_name)


class Enum(object):
  """Base class for all enumerated types."""

  __metaclass__ = _EnumClass

  __slots__ = set(('name', 'number'))

  def __new__(cls, index):
    """Acts as look-up routine after class is initialized.

    The purpose of overriding __new__ is to provide a way to treat
    Enum subclasses as casting types, similar to how the int type
    functions.  A program can pass a string or an integer and this
    method with "convert" that value in to an appropriate Enum instance.

    Args:
      index: Name or number to look up.  During initialization
        this is always the name of the new enum value.

    Raises:
      TypeError: When an inappropriate index value is passed provided.
    """
    # If is enum type of this class, return it.
    if isinstance(index, cls):
      return index

    # If number, look up by number.
    if isinstance(index, (int, long)):
      try:
        return cls.lookup_by_number(index)
      except KeyError:
        pass

    # If name, look up by name.
    if isinstance(index, basestring):
      try:
        return cls.lookup_by_name(index)
      except KeyError:
        pass

    raise TypeError('No such value for %s in Enum %s' %
                    (index, cls.__name__))

  def __init__(self, name, number=None):
    """Initialize new Enum instance.

    Since this should only be called during class initialization any
    calls that happen after the class is frozen raises an exception.
    """
    # Immediately return if __init__ was called after _Enum.__init__().
    # It means that casting operator version of the class constructor
    # is being used.
    if getattr(type(self), '_DefinitionClass__initialized'):
      return
    object.__setattr__(self, 'name', name)
    object.__setattr__(self, 'number', number)

  def __setattr__(self, name, value):
    raise TypeError('May not change enum values')

  def __str__(self):
    return self.name

  def __int__(self):
    return self.number

  def __repr__(self):
    return '%s(%s, %d)' % (type(self).__name__, self.name, self.number)

  def __cmp__(self, other):
    """Order is by number."""
    if isinstance(other, type(self)):
      return cmp(self.number, other.number)
    return NotImplemented

  @classmethod
  def to_dict(cls):
    """Make dictionary version of enumerated class.

    Dictionary created this way can be used with def_num.

    Returns:
      A dict (name) -> number
    """
    return dict((item.name, item.number) for item in iter(cls))

  @staticmethod
  def def_enum(dct, name):
    """Define enum class from dictionary.

    Args:
      dct: Dictionary of enumerated values for type.
      name: Name of enum.
    """
    return type(name, (Enum,), dct)


# TODO(rafek): Determine to what degree this enumeration should be compatible
# with FieldDescriptor.Type in:
#
#   http://code.google.com/p/protobuf/source/browse/trunk/src/google/protobuf/descriptor.proto
class Variant(Enum):
  """Wire format variant.

  Used by the 'protobuf' wire format to determine how to transmit
  a single piece of data.  May be used by other formats.

  See: http://code.google.com/apis/protocolbuffers/docs/encoding.html

  Values:
    DOUBLE: 64-bit floating point number.
    FLOAT: 32-bit floating point number.
    INT64: 64-bit signed integer.
    UINT64: 64-bit unsigned integer.
    INT32: 32-bit signed integer.
    BOOL: Boolean value (True or False).
    STRING: String of UTF-8 encoded text.
    MESSAGE: Embedded message as byte string.
    BYTES: String of 8-bit bytes.
    UINT32: 32-bit unsigned integer.
    ENUM: Enum value as integer.
    SINT32: 32-bit signed integer.  Uses "zig-zag" encoding.
    SINT64: 64-bit signed integer.  Uses "zig-zag" encoding.
  """
  DOUBLE   = 1
  FLOAT    = 2
  INT64    = 3
  UINT64   = 4
  INT32    = 5
  BOOL     = 8
  STRING   = 9
  MESSAGE  = 11
  BYTES    = 12
  UINT32   = 13
  ENUM     = 14
  SINT32   = 17
  SINT64   = 18


class _MessageClass(_DefinitionClass):
  """Meta-class used for defining the Message base class.

  For more details about Message classes, see the Message class docstring.
  Information contained there may help understanding this class.

  Meta-class enables very specific behavior for any defined Message
  class.  All attributes defined on an Message sub-class must be field
  instances, Enum class definitions or other Message class definitions.  Each
  field attribute defined on an Message sub-class is added to the set of
  field definitions and the attribute is translated in to a slot.  It also
  ensures that only one level of Message class hierarchy is possible.  In other
  words it is not possible to declare sub-classes of sub-classes of
  Message.

  This class also defines some functions in order to restrict the
  behavior of the Message class and its sub-classes.  It is not possible
  to change the behavior of the Message class in later classes since
  any new classes may be defined with only field, Enums and Messages, and
  no methods.
  """

  def __new__(cls, name, bases, dct):
    """Create new Message class instance.

    The __new__ method of the _MessageClass type is overridden so as to
    allow the translation of Field instances to slots.
    """
    by_number = {}
    by_name = {}

    variant_map = {}

    if bases != (object,):
      # Can only define one level of sub-classes below Message.
      if bases != (Message,):
        raise MessageDefinitionError(
            'Message types may only inherit from Message')

      enums = []
      messages = []
      # Must not use iteritems because this loop will change the state of dct.
      for key, field in dct.items():

        if key in _RESERVED_ATTRIBUTE_NAMES:
          continue

        if isinstance(field, type) and issubclass(field, Enum):
          enums.append(key)
          continue

        if (isinstance(field, type) and
            issubclass(field, Message) and
            field is not Message):
          messages.append(key)
          continue

        # Reject anything that is not a field.
        if type(field) is Field or not isinstance(field, Field):
          raise MessageDefinitionError(
              'May only use fields in message definitions.  Found: %s = %s' %
              (key, field))

        if field.number in by_number:
          raise DuplicateNumberError(
              'Field with number %d declared more than once in %s' %
              (field.number, name))

        field.name = key

        # Place in name and number maps.
        by_name[key] = field
        by_number[field.number] = field

      # Add enums if any exist.
      if enums:
        dct['__enums__'] = sorted(enums)

      # Add messages if any exist.
      if messages:
        dct['__messages__'] = sorted(messages)

    dct['_Message__by_number'] = by_number
    dct['_Message__by_name'] = by_name

    return _DefinitionClass.__new__(cls, name, bases, dct)

  def __init__(cls, name, bases, dct):
    """Initializer required to assign references to new class."""
    if bases != (object,):
      for value in dct.itervalues():
        if isinstance(value, _DefinitionClass) and not value is Message:
          value._message_definition = weakref.ref(cls)

      for field in cls.all_fields():
        field._message_definition = weakref.ref(cls)

    _DefinitionClass.__init__(cls, name, bases, dct)


class Message(object):
  """Base class for user defined message objects.

  Used to define messages for efficient transmission across network or
  process space.  Messages are defined using the field classes (IntegerField,
  FloatField, EnumField, etc.).

  Messages are more restricted than normal classes in that they may only
  contain field attributes and other Message and Enum definitions.  These
  restrictions are in place because the structure of the Message class is
  intentended to itself be transmitted across network or process space and
  used directly by clients or even other servers.  As such methods and
  non-field attributes could not be transmitted with the structural information
  causing discrepancies between different languages and implementations.

  Initialization and validation:

    A Message object is considered to be initialized if it has all required
    fields and any nested messages are also initialized.

    Calling 'check_initialized' will raise a ValidationException if it is not
    initialized; 'is_initialized' returns a boolean value indicating if it is
    valid.

    Validation automatically occurs when Message objects are created
    and populated.  Validation that a given value will be compatible with
    a field that it is assigned to can be done through the Field instances
    validate() method.  The validate method used on a message will check that
    all values of a message and its sub-messages are valid.  Assingning an
    invalid value to a field will raise a ValidationException.

  Example:

    # Trade type.
    class TradeType(Enum):
      BUY = 1
      SELL = 2
      SHORT = 3
      CALL = 4

    class Lot(Message):
      price = IntegerField(1, required=True)
      quantity = IntegerField(2, required=True)

    class Order(Message):
      symbol = StringField(1, required=True)
      total_quantity = IntegerField(2, required=True)
      trade_type = EnumField(TradeType, 3, required=True)
      lots = MessageField(Lot, 4, repeated=True)
      limit = IntegerField(5)

    order = Order(symbol='GOOG',
                  total_quantity=10,
                  trade_type=TradeType.BUY)

    lot1 = Lot(price=304,
               quantity=7)

    lot2 = Lot(price = 305,
               quantity=3)

    order.lots = [lot1, lot2]

    # Now object is initialized!
    order.check_initialized()
  """

  __metaclass__ = _MessageClass

  def __init__(self, **kwargs):
    """Initialize internal messages state.

    Args:
      A message can be initialized via the constructor by passing in keyword
      arguments corresponding to fields.  For example:

        class Date(Message):
          day = IntegerField(1)
          month = IntegerField(2)
          year = IntegerField(3)

      Invoking:

        date = Date(day=6, month=6, year=1911)

      is the same as doing:

        date = Date()
        date.day = 6
        date.month = 6
        date.year = 1911
    """
    # Tag being an essential implementation detail must be private.
    self.__tags = {}
    self.__unrecognized_fields = {}

    assigned = set()
    for name, value in kwargs.iteritems():
      setattr(self, name, value)
      assigned.add(name)

    # initialize repeated fields.
    for field in self.all_fields():
      if field.repeated and field.name not in assigned:
        setattr(self, field.name, [])


  def check_initialized(self):
    """Check class for initialization status.

    Check that all required fields are initialized

    Raises:
      ValidationError: If message is not initialized.
    """
    for name, field in self.__by_name.iteritems():
      value = getattr(self, name)
      if value is None:
        if field.required:
          raise ValidationError("Message %s is missing required field %s" %
                                (type(self).__name__, name))
      else:
        try:
          if (isinstance(field, MessageField) and
              issubclass(field.message_type, Message)):
            if field.repeated:
              for item in value:
                item_message_value = field.value_to_message(item)
                item_message_value.check_initialized()
            else:
              message_value = field.value_to_message(value)
              message_value.check_initialized()
        except ValidationError, err:
          if not hasattr(err, 'message_name'):
            err.message_name = type(self).__name__
          raise

  def is_initialized(self):
    """Get initialization status.

    Returns:
      True if message is valid, else False.
    """
    try:
      self.check_initialized()
    except ValidationError:
      return False
    else:
      return True

  @classmethod
  def all_fields(cls):
    """Get all field definition objects.

    Ordering is arbitrary.

    Returns:
      Iterator over all values in arbitrary order.
    """
    return cls.__by_name.itervalues()

  @classmethod
  def field_by_name(cls, name):
    """Get field by name.

    Returns:
      Field object associated with name.

    Raises:
      KeyError if no field found by that name.
    """
    return cls.__by_name[name]

  @classmethod
  def field_by_number(cls, number):
    """Get field by number.

    Returns:
      Field object associated with number.

    Raises:
      KeyError if no field found by that number.
    """
    return cls.__by_number[number]

  def get_assigned_value(self, name):
    """Get the assigned value of an attribute.

    Get the underlying value of an attribute.  If value has not been set, will
    not return the default for the field.

    Args:
      name: Name of attribute to get.

    Returns:
      Value of attribute, None if it has not been set.
    """
    message_type = type(self)
    try:
      field = message_type.field_by_name(name)
    except KeyError:
      raise AttributeError('Message %s has no field %s' % (
          message_type.__name__, name))
    return self.__tags.get(field.number)

  def reset(self, name):
    """Reset assigned value for field.

    Resetting a field will return it to its default value or None.

    Args:
      name: Name of field to reset.
    """
    message_type = type(self)
    try:
      field = message_type.field_by_name(name)
    except KeyError:
      if name not in message_type.__by_name:
        raise AttributeError('Message %s has no field %s' % (
            message_type.__name__, name))
    self.__tags.pop(field.number, None)

  def all_unrecognized_fields(self):
    """Get the names of all unrecognized fields in this message."""
    return self.__unrecognized_fields.keys()

  def get_unrecognized_field_info(self, key, value_default=None,
                                  variant_default=None):
    """Get the value and variant of an unknown field in this message.

    Args:
      key: The name or number of the field to retrieve.
      value_default: Value to be returned if the key isn't found.
      variant_default: Value to be returned as variant if the key isn't
        found.

    Returns:
      (value, variant), where value and variant are whatever was passed
      to set_unrecognized_field.
    """
    value, variant = self.__unrecognized_fields.get(key, (value_default,
                                                          variant_default))
    return value, variant

  def set_unrecognized_field(self, key, value, variant):
    """Set an unrecognized field, used when decoding a message.

    Args:
      key: The name or number used to refer to this unknown value.
      value: The value of the field.
      variant: Type information needed to interpret the value or re-encode it.

    Raises:
      TypeError: If the variant is not an instance of messages.Variant.
    """
    if not isinstance(variant, Variant):
      raise TypeError('Variant type %s is not valid.' % variant)
    self.__unrecognized_fields[key] = value, variant

  def __setattr__(self, name, value):
    """Change set behavior for messages.

    Messages may only be assigned values that are fields.

    Does not try to validate field when set.

    Args:
      name: Name of field to assign to.
      vlaue: Value to assign to field.

    Raises:
      AttributeError when trying to assign value that is not a field.
    """
    if name in self.__by_name or name.startswith('_Message__'):
      object.__setattr__(self, name, value)
    else:
      raise AttributeError("May not assign arbitrary value %s "
                           "to message %s" % (name, type(self).__name__))

  def __repr__(self):
    """Make string representation of message.

    Example:

      class MyMessage(messages.Message):
        integer_value = messages.IntegerField(1)
        string_value = messages.StringField(2)

      my_message = MyMessage()
      my_message.integer_value = 42
      my_message.string_value = u'A string'

      print my_message
      >>> <MyMessage
      ...  integer_value: 42
      ...  string_value: u'A string'>

    Returns:
      String representation of message, including the values
      of all fields and repr of all sub-messages.
    """
    body = ['<', type(self).__name__]
    for field in sorted(self.all_fields(),
                        key=lambda f: f.number):
      attribute = field.name
      value = self.get_assigned_value(field.name)
      if value is not None:
        body.append('\n %s: %s' % (attribute, repr(value)))
    body.append('>')
    return ''.join(body)

  def __eq__(self, other):
    """Equality operator.

    Does field by field comparison with other message.  For
    equality, must be same type and values of all fields must be
    equal.

    Messages not required to be initialized for comparison.

    Does not attempt to determine equality for values that have
    default values that are not set.  In other words:

      class HasDefault(Message):

        attr1 = StringField(1, default='default value')

      message1 = HasDefault()
      message2 = HasDefault()
      message2.attr1 = 'default value'

      message1 != message2

    Does not compare unknown values.

    Args:
      other: Other message to compare with.
    """
    # TODO(rafek): Implement "equivalent" which does comparisons
    # taking default values in to consideration.
    if self is other:
      return True

    if type(self) is not type(other):
      return False

    return self.__tags == other.__tags

  def __ne__(self, other):
    """Not equals operator.

    Does field by field comparison with other message.  For
    non-equality, must be different type or any value of a field must be
    non-equal to the same field in the other instance.

    Messages not required to be initialized for comparison.

    Args:
      other: Other message to compare with.
    """
    return not self.__eq__(other)


class FieldList(list):
  """List implementation that validates field values.

  This list implementation overrides all methods that add values in to a list
  in order to validate those new elements.  Attempting to add or set list
  values that are not of the correct type will raise ValidationError.
  """

  def __init__(self, field_instance, sequence):
    """Constructor.

    Args:
      field_instance: Instance of field that validates the list.
      sequence: List or tuple to construct list from.
    """
    if not field_instance.repeated:
      raise FieldDefinitionError('FieldList may only accept repeated fields')
    self.__field = field_instance
    self.__field.validate(sequence)
    list.__init__(self, sequence)

  @property
  def field(self):
    """Field that validates list."""
    return self.__field

  def __setslice__(self, i, j, sequence):
    """Validate slice assignment to list."""
    self.__field.validate(sequence)
    list.__setslice__(self, i, j, sequence)

  def __setitem__(self, index, value):
    """Validate item assignment to list."""
    self.__field.validate_element(value)
    list.__setitem__(self, index, value)

  def append(self, value):
    """Validate item appending to list."""
    self.__field.validate_element(value)
    return list.append(self, value)

  def extend(self, sequence):
    """Validate extension of list."""
    self.__field.validate(sequence)
    return list.extend(self, sequence)

  def insert(self, index, value):
    """Validate item insertion to list."""
    self.__field.validate_element(value)
    return list.insert(self, index, value)


# TODO(rafek): Prevent additional field subclasses.
class Field(object):

  __variant_to_type = {}

  class __metaclass__(type):

    def __init__(cls, name, bases, dct):
      getattr(cls, '_Field__variant_to_type').update(
        (variant, cls) for variant in dct.get('VARIANTS', []))
      type.__init__(cls, name, bases, dct)

  __initialized = False

  @util.positional(2)
  def __init__(self,
               number,
               required=False,
               repeated=False,
               variant=None,
               default=None):
    """Constructor.

    The required and repeated parameters are mutually exclusive.  Setting both
    to True will raise a FieldDefinitionError.

    Sub-class Attributes:
      Each sub-class of Field must define the following:
        VARIANTS: Set of variant types accepted by that field.
        DEFAULT_VARIANT: Default variant type if not specified in constructor.

    Args:
      number: Number of field.  Must be unique per message class.
      required: Whether or not field is required.  Mutually exclusive with
        'repeated'.
      repeated: Whether or not field is repeated.  Mutually exclusive with
        'required'.
      variant: Wire-format variant hint.
      default: Default value for field if not found in stream.

    Raises:
      InvalidVariantError when invalid variant for field is provided.
      InvalidDefaultError when invalid default for field is provided.
      FieldDefinitionError when invalid number provided or mutually exclusive
        fields are used.
      InvalidNumberError when the field number is out of range or reserved.
    """
    if not isinstance(number, int) or not 1 <= number <= MAX_FIELD_NUMBER:
      raise InvalidNumberError('Invalid number for field: %s\n'
                               'Number must be 1 or greater and %d or less' %
                               (number, MAX_FIELD_NUMBER))

    if FIRST_RESERVED_FIELD_NUMBER <= number <= LAST_RESERVED_FIELD_NUMBER:
      raise InvalidNumberError('Tag number %d is a reserved number.\n'
                               'Numbers %d to %d are reserved' %
                               (number, FIRST_RESERVED_FIELD_NUMBER,
                                LAST_RESERVED_FIELD_NUMBER))

    if repeated and required:
      raise FieldDefinitionError('Cannot set both repeated and required')

    if variant is None:
      variant = self.DEFAULT_VARIANT

    if repeated and default is not None:
      raise FieldDefinitionError('Repeated fields may not have defaults')

    if variant not in self.VARIANTS:
      raise InvalidVariantError(
          'Invalid variant: %s\nValid variants for %s are %r' %
          (variant, type(self).__name__, sorted(self.VARIANTS)))

    self.number = number
    self.required = required
    self.repeated = repeated
    self.variant = variant

    if default is not None:
      try:
        self.validate_default(default)
      except ValidationError, err:
        try:
          name = self.name
        except AttributeError:
          # For when raising error before name initialization.
          raise InvalidDefaultError('Invalid default value for %s: %s: %s' %
                                    (self.__class__.__name__, default, err))
        else:
          raise InvalidDefaultError('Invalid default value for field %s: '
                                    '%s: %s' % (name, default, err))

    self.__default = default
    self.__initialized = True

  def __setattr__(self, name, value):
    """Setter overidden to prevent assignment to fields after creation.

    Args:
      name: Name of attribute to set.
      value: Value to assign.
    """
    # Special case post-init names.  They need to be set after constructor.
    if name in _POST_INIT_FIELD_ATTRIBUTE_NAMES:
      object.__setattr__(self, name, value)
      return

    # All other attributes must be set before __initialized.
    if not self.__initialized:
      # Not initialized yet, allow assignment.
      object.__setattr__(self, name, value)
    else:
      raise AttributeError('Field objects are read-only')

  def __set__(self, message_instance, value):
    """Set value on message.

    Args:
      message_instance: Message instance to set value on.
      value: Value to set on message.
    """
    # Reaches in to message instance directly to assign to private tags.
    if value is None:
      if self.repeated:
        raise ValidationError(
          'May not assign None to repeated field %s' % self.name)
      else:
        message_instance._Message__tags.pop(self.number, None)
    else:
      if self.repeated:
        value = FieldList(self, value)
      else:
        self.validate(value)
      message_instance._Message__tags[self.number] = value

  def __get__(self, message_instance, message_class):
    if message_instance is None:
      return self

    result = message_instance._Message__tags.get(self.number)
    if result is None:
      return self.default
    else:
      return result

  def validate_element(self, value):
    """Validate single element of field.

    This is different from validate in that it is used on individual
    values of repeated fields.

    Args:
      value: Value to validate.

    Raises:
      ValidationError if value is not expected type.
    """
    if not isinstance(value, self.type):
      if value is None:
        if self.required:
          raise ValidationError('Required field is missing')
      else:
        try:
          name = self.name
        except AttributeError:
          raise ValidationError('Expected type %s for %s, '
                                'found %s (type %s)' %
                                (self.type, self.__class__.__name__,
                                 value, type(value)))
        else:
          raise ValidationError('Expected type %s for field %s, '
                                'found %s (type %s)' %
                                (self.type, name, value, type(value)))

  def __validate(self, value, validate_element):
    """Internal validation function.

    Validate an internal value using a function to validate individual elements.

    Args:
      value: Value to validate.
      validate_element: Function to use to validate individual elements.

    Raises:
      ValidationError if value is not expected type.
    """
    if not self.repeated:
      validate_element(value)
    else:
      # Must be a list or tuple, may not be a string.
      if isinstance(value, (list, tuple)):
        for element in value:
          if element is None:
            try:
              name = self.name
            except AttributeError:
              raise ValidationError('Repeated values for %s '
                                    'may not be None' % self.__class__.__name__)
            else:
              raise ValidationError('Repeated values for field %s '
                                    'may not be None' % name)
          validate_element(element)
      elif value is not None:
        try:
          name = self.name
        except AttributeError:
          raise ValidationError('%s is repeated. Found: %s' % (
            self.__class__.__name__, value))
        else:
          raise ValidationError('Field %s is repeated. Found: %s' % (name,
                                                                     value))

  def validate(self, value):
    """Validate value assigned to field.

    Args:
      value: Value to validate.

    Raises:
      ValidationError if value is not expected type.
    """
    self.__validate(value, self.validate_element)

  def validate_default_element(self, value):
    """Validate value as assigned to field default field.

    Some fields may allow for delayed resolution of default types necessary
    in the case of circular definition references.  In this case, the default
    value might be a place holder that is resolved when needed after all the
    message classes are defined.

    Args:
      value: Default value to validate.

    Raises:
      ValidationError if value is not expected type.
    """
    self.validate_element(value)

  def validate_default(self, value):
    """Validate default value assigned to field.

    Args:
      value: Value to validate.

    Raises:
      ValidationError if value is not expected type.
    """
    self.__validate(value, self.validate_default_element)

  def message_definition(self):
    """Get Message definition that contains this Field definition.

    Returns:
      Containing Message definition for Field.  Will return None if for
      some reason Field is defined outside of a Message class.
    """
    try:
      return self._message_definition()
    except AttributeError:
      return None

  @property
  def default(self):
    """Get default value for field."""
    return self.__default

  @classmethod
  def lookup_field_type_by_variant(cls, variant):
    return cls.__variant_to_type[variant]


class IntegerField(Field):
  """Field definition for integer values."""

  VARIANTS = frozenset([Variant.INT32,
                        Variant.INT64,
                        Variant.UINT32,
                        Variant.UINT64,
                        Variant.SINT32,
                        Variant.SINT64,
                       ])

  DEFAULT_VARIANT = Variant.INT64

  type = (int, long)


class FloatField(Field):
  """Field definition for float values."""

  VARIANTS = frozenset([Variant.FLOAT,
                        Variant.DOUBLE,
                       ])

  DEFAULT_VARIANT = Variant.DOUBLE

  type = float


class BooleanField(Field):
  """Field definition for boolean values."""

  VARIANTS = frozenset([Variant.BOOL])

  DEFAULT_VARIANT = Variant.BOOL

  type = bool


class BytesField(Field):
  """Field definition for byte string values."""

  VARIANTS = frozenset([Variant.BYTES])

  DEFAULT_VARIANT = Variant.BYTES

  type = str


class StringField(Field):
  """Field definition for unicode string values."""

  VARIANTS = frozenset([Variant.STRING])

  DEFAULT_VARIANT = Variant.STRING

  type = unicode

  def validate_element(self, value):
    """Validate StringField allowing for str and unicode.

    Raises:
      ValidationError if a str value is not 7-bit ascii.
    """
    # If value is str is it considered valid.  Satisfies "required=True".
    if isinstance(value, str):
      try:
        unicode(value)
      except UnicodeDecodeError, err:
        try:
          name = self.name
        except AttributeError:
          validation_error = ValidationError(
            'Field encountered non-ASCII string %s: %s' % (value,
                                                           err))
        else:
          validation_error = ValidationError(
            'Field %s encountered non-ASCII string %s: %s' % (self.name,
                                                              value,
                                                              err))
          validation_error.field_name = self.name
        raise validation_error
    else:
      super(StringField, self).validate_element(value)


class MessageField(Field):
  """Field definition for sub-message values.

  Message fields contain instance of other messages.  Instances stored
  on messages stored on message fields  are considered to be owned by
  the containing message instance and should not be shared between
  owning instances.

  Message fields must be defined to reference a single type of message.
  Normally message field are defined by passing the referenced message
  class in to the constructor.

  It is possible to define a message field for a type that does not yet
  exist by passing the name of the message in to the constructor instead
  of a message class.  Resolution of the actual type of the message is
  deferred until it is needed, for example, during message verification.
  Names provided to the constructor must refer to a class within the same
  python module as the class that is using it.  Names refer to messages
  relative to the containing messages scope.  For example, the two fields
  of OuterMessage refer to the same message type:

    class Outer(Message):

      inner_relative = MessageField('Inner', 1)
      inner_absolute = MessageField('Outer.Inner', 2)

      class Inner(Message):
        ...

  When resolving an actual type, MessageField will traverse the entire
  scope of nested messages to match a message name.  This makes it easy
  for siblings to reference siblings:

    class Outer(Message):

      class Inner(Message):

        sibling = MessageField('Sibling', 1)

      class Sibling(Message):
        ...
  """

  VARIANTS = frozenset([Variant.MESSAGE])

  DEFAULT_VARIANT = Variant.MESSAGE

  @util.positional(3)
  def __init__(self,
               message_type,
               number,
               required=False,
               repeated=False,
               variant=None):
    """Constructor.

    Args:
      message_type: Message type for field.  Must be subclass of Message.
      number: Number of field.  Must be unique per message class.
      required: Whether or not field is required.  Mutually exclusive to
        'repeated'.
      repeated: Whether or not field is repeated.  Mutually exclusive to
        'required'.
      variant: Wire-format variant hint.

    Raises:
      FieldDefinitionError when invalid message_type is provided.
    """
    valid_type = (isinstance(message_type, basestring) or
                  (message_type is not Message and
                   isinstance(message_type, type) and
                   issubclass(message_type, Message)))

    if not valid_type:
      raise FieldDefinitionError('Invalid message class: %s' % message_type)

    if isinstance(message_type, basestring):
      self.__type_name = message_type
      self.__type = None
    else:
      self.__type = message_type

    super(MessageField, self).__init__(number,
                                       required=required,
                                       repeated=repeated,
                                       variant=variant)

  @property
  def type(self):
    """Message type used for field."""
    if self.__type is None:
      message_type = find_definition(self.__type_name, self.message_definition())
      if not (message_type is not Message and
              isinstance(message_type, type) and
              issubclass(message_type, Message)):
        raise FieldDefinitionError('Invalid message class: %s' % message_type)
      self.__type = message_type
    return self.__type

  @property
  def message_type(self):
    """Underlying message type used for serialization.

    Will always be a sub-class of Message.  This is different from type
    which represents the python value that message_type is mapped to for
    use by the user.
    """
    return self.type

  def value_from_message(self, message):
    """Convert a message to a value instance.

    Used by deserializers to convert from underlying messages to
    value of expected user type.

    Args:
      message: A message instance of type self.message_type.

    Returns:
      Value of self.message_type.
    """
    if not isinstance(message, self.message_type):
      raise DecodeError('Expected type %s, got %s: %r' %
                        (self.message_type.__name__,
                         type(message).__name__,
                         message))
    return message

  def value_to_message(self, value):
    """Convert a value instance to a message.

    Used by serializers to convert Python user types to underlying
    messages for transmission.

    Args:
      value: A value of type self.type.

    Returns:
      An instance of type self.message_type.
    """
    if not isinstance(value, self.type):
      raise EncodeError('Expected type %s, got %s: %r' %
                        (self.type.__name__,
                         type(value).__name__,
                         value))
    return value


class EnumField(Field):
  """Field definition for enum values.

  Enum fields may have default values that are delayed until the associated enum
  type is resolved.  This is necessary to support certain circular references.

  For example:

    class Message1(Message):

      class Color(Enum):

        RED = 1
        GREEN = 2
        BLUE = 3

      # This field default value  will be validated when default is accessed.
      animal = EnumField('Message2.Animal', 1, default='HORSE')

    class Message2(Message):

      class Animal(Enum):

        DOG = 1
        CAT = 2
        HORSE = 3

      # This fields default value will be validated right away since Color is
      # already fully resolved.
      color = EnumField(Message1.Color, 1, default='RED')
  """

  VARIANTS = frozenset([Variant.ENUM])

  DEFAULT_VARIANT = Variant.ENUM

  def __init__(self, enum_type, number, **kwargs):
    """Constructor.

    Args:
      enum_type: Enum type for field.  Must be subclass of Enum.
      number: Number of field.  Must be unique per message class.
      required: Whether or not field is required.  Mutually exclusive to
        'repeated'.
      repeated: Whether or not field is repeated.  Mutually exclusive to
        'required'.
      variant: Wire-format variant hint.
      default: Default value for field if not found in stream.

    Raises:
      FieldDefinitionError when invalid enum_type is provided.
    """
    valid_type = (isinstance(enum_type, basestring) or
                  (enum_type is not Enum and
                   isinstance(enum_type, type) and
                   issubclass(enum_type, Enum)))

    if not valid_type:
      raise FieldDefinitionError('Invalid enum type: %s' % enum_type)

    if isinstance(enum_type, basestring):
      self.__type_name = enum_type
      self.__type = None
    else:
      self.__type = enum_type

    super(EnumField, self).__init__(number, **kwargs)

  def validate_default_element(self, value):
    """Validate default element of Enum field.

    Enum fields allow for delayed resolution of default values when the type
    of the field has not been resolved.  The default value of a field may be
    a string or an integer.  If the Enum type of the field has been resolved,
    the default value is validated against that type.

    Args:
      value: Value to validate.

    Raises:
      ValidationError if value is not expected message type.
    """
    if isinstance(value, (basestring, int, long)):
      # Validation of the value does not happen for delayed resolution
      # enumerated types.  Ignore if type is not yet resolved.
      if self.__type:
        self.__type(value)
      return

    super(EnumField, self).validate_default_element(value)

  @property
  def type(self):
    """Enum type used for field."""
    if self.__type is None:
      found_type = find_definition(self.__type_name, self.message_definition())
      if not (found_type is not Enum and
              isinstance(found_type, type) and
              issubclass(found_type, Enum)):
        raise FieldDefinitionError('Invalid enum type: %s' % found_type)

      self.__type = found_type
    return self.__type

  @property
  def default(self):
    """Default for enum field.

    Will cause resolution of Enum type and unresolved default value.
    """
    try:
      return self.__resolved_default
    except AttributeError:
      resolved_default = super(EnumField, self).default
      if isinstance(resolved_default, (basestring, int, long)):
        resolved_default = self.type(resolved_default)
      self.__resolved_default = resolved_default
      return self.__resolved_default


@util.positional(2)
def find_definition(name, relative_to=None, importer=__import__):
  """Find definition by name in module-space.

  The find algorthm will look for definitions by name relative to a message
  definition or by fully qualfied name.  If no definition is found relative
  to the relative_to parameter it will do the same search against the container
  of relative_to.  If relative_to is a nested Message, it will search its
  message_definition().  If that message has no message_definition() it will
  search its module.  If relative_to is a module, it will attempt to look for
  the containing module and search relative to it.  If the module is a top-level
  module, it will look for the a message using a fully qualified name.  If
  no message is found then, the search fails and DefinitionNotFoundError is
  raised.

  For example, when looking for any definition 'foo.bar.ADefinition' relative to
  an actual message definition abc.xyz.SomeMessage:

    find_definition('foo.bar.ADefinition', SomeMessage)

  It is like looking for the following fully qualified names:

    abc.xyz.SomeMessage. foo.bar.ADefinition
    abc.xyz. foo.bar.ADefinition
    abc. foo.bar.ADefinition
    foo.bar.ADefinition

  When resolving the name relative to Message definitions and modules, the
  algorithm searches any Messages or sub-modules found in its path.
  Non-Message values are not searched.

  A name that begins with '.' is considered to be a fully qualified name.  The
  name is always searched for from the topmost package.  For example, assume
  two message types:

    abc.xyz.SomeMessage
    xyz.SomeMessage

  Searching for '.xyz.SomeMessage' relative to 'abc' will resolve to
  'xyz.SomeMessage' and not 'abc.xyz.SomeMessage'.  For this kind of name,
  the relative_to parameter is effectively ignored and always set to None.

  For more information about package name resolution, please see:

    http://code.google.com/apis/protocolbuffers/docs/proto.html#packages

  Args:
    name: Name of definition to find.  May be fully qualified or relative name.
    relative_to: Search for definition relative to message definition or module.
      None will cause a fully qualified name search.
    importer: Import function to use for resolving modules.

  Returns:
    Enum or Message class definition associated with name.

  Raises:
    DefinitionNotFoundError if no definition is found in any search path.
  """
  # Check parameters.
  if not (relative_to is None or
          isinstance(relative_to, types.ModuleType) or
          isinstance(relative_to, type) and issubclass(relative_to, Message)):
    raise TypeError('relative_to must be None, Message definition or module.  '
                    'Found: %s' % relative_to)

  name_path = name.split('.')

  # Handle absolute path reference.
  if not name_path[0]:
    relative_to = None
    name_path = name_path[1:]

  def search_path():
    """Performs a single iteration searching the path from relative_to.

    This is the function that searches up the path from a relative object.

      fully.qualified.object . relative.or.nested.Definition
                               ---------------------------->
                                                  ^
                                                  |
                            this part of search --+

    Returns:
      Message or Enum at the end of name_path, else None.
    """
    next = relative_to
    for node in name_path:
      # Look for attribute first.
      attribute = getattr(next, node, None)

      if attribute is not None:
        next = attribute
      else:
        # If module, look for sub-module.
        if next is None or isinstance(next, types.ModuleType):
          if next is None:
            module_name = node
          else:
            module_name = '%s.%s' % (next.__name__, node)

          try:
            fromitem = module_name.split('.')[-1]
            next = importer(module_name, '', '', [str(fromitem)])
          except ImportError:
            return None
        else:
          return None

      if (not isinstance(next, types.ModuleType) and
          not (isinstance(next, type) and
               issubclass(next, (Message, Enum)))):
        return None

    return next

  while True:
    found = search_path()
    if isinstance(found, type) and issubclass(found, (Enum, Message)):
      return found
    else:
      # Find next relative_to to search against.
      #
      #   fully.qualified.object . relative.or.nested.Definition
      #   <---------------------
      #           ^
      #           |
      #   does this part of search
      if relative_to is None:
        # Fully qualified search was done.  Nothing found.  Fail.
        raise DefinitionNotFoundError('Could not find definition for %s'
                                      % (name,))
      else:
        if isinstance(relative_to, types.ModuleType):
          # Find parent module.
          module_path = relative_to.__name__.split('.')[:-1]
          if not module_path:
            relative_to = None
          else:
            # Should not raise ImportError.  If it does... weird and
            # unexepected.  Propagate.
            relative_to = importer(
              '.'.join(module_path), '', '', [module_path[-1]])
        elif (isinstance(relative_to, type) and
              issubclass(relative_to, Message)):
          parent = relative_to.message_definition()
          if parent is None:
            last_module_name = relative_to.__module__.split('.')[-1]
            relative_to = importer(
              relative_to.__module__, '', '', [last_module_name])
          else:
            relative_to = parent