2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
5 @setfilename ../info/numbers
6 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top
11 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and
12 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as
13 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point
14 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or
15 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation:
16 1.5e2 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the
17 second power, and is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not
18 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision.
20 Support for floating point numbers is a new feature in Emacs 19, and it
21 is controlled by a separate compilation option, so you may encounter a site
22 where Emacs does not support them.
25 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers.
26 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point.
27 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers.
28 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates.
29 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa.
30 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide.
31 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers.
32 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting.
33 * Transcendental Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions.
34 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not.
38 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
39 @section Integer Basics
41 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The
42 range is @minus{}8388608 to 8388607 (28 bits; i.e.,
56 on most machines, but some machines may have a wider range. Many
57 examples in this chapter assume an integer has 28 bits.
60 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional
61 initial sign and optional final period.
64 1 ; @r{The integer 1.}
65 1. ; @r{The integer 1.}
66 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.}
67 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.}
68 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.}
69 0 ; @r{The integer 0.}
70 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.}
73 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the
74 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to
75 view the numbers in their binary form.
77 In 28-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this:
80 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101
84 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces
85 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.)
87 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this:
90 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
94 @cindex two's complement
95 @minus{}1 is represented as 28 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's
96 complement} notation.)
98 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from
99 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently,
100 @minus{}5 looks like this:
103 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011
106 In this implementation, the largest 24-bit binary integer is the
107 decimal integer 134,217,727. In binary, it looks like this:
110 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
113 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go
114 outside their range, when you add 1 to 134,217,727, the value is the
115 negative integer @minus{}134,217,728:
120 @result{} 1000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
123 Many of the following functions accept markers for arguments as well
124 as integers. (@xref{Markers}.) More precisely, the actual arguments to
125 such functions may be either integers or markers, which is why we often
126 give these arguments the name @var{int-or-marker}. When the argument
127 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored.
130 In version 19, except where @emph{integer} is specified as an
131 argument, all of the functions for markers and integers also work for
132 floating point numbers.
136 @section Floating Point Basics
138 @cindex @code{LISP_FLOAT_TYPE} configuration macro
139 Emacs version 19 supports floating point numbers, if compiled with the
140 macro @code{LISP_FLOAT_TYPE} defined. The precise range of floating
141 point numbers is machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C
142 data type @code{double} on the machine in question.
144 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either
145 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or
146 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2},
147 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point
148 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use
149 a minus sign to write negative floating point numbers, as in
152 @cindex IEEE floating point
153 @cindex positive infinity
154 @cindex negative infinity
157 Most modern computers support the IEEE floating point standard, which
158 provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point
159 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or
160 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where
161 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(sqrt -1.0)} returns a
162 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between
163 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely
164 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so this manual
165 doesn't try to distinguish them. Emacs Lisp has no read syntax for NaNs
166 or infinities; perhaps we should create a syntax in the future.
168 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating
169 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer):
172 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More
173 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded
177 @node Predicates on Numbers
178 @section Type Predicates for Numbers
180 The functions in this section test whether the argument is a number or
181 whether it is a certain sort of number. The functions @code{integerp}
182 and @code{floatp} can take any type of Lisp object as argument (the
183 predicates would not be of much use otherwise); but the @code{zerop}
184 predicate requires a number as its argument. See also
185 @code{integer-or-marker-p} and @code{number-or-marker-p}, in
186 @ref{Predicates on Markers}.
189 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point
190 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
192 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier.
195 @defun integerp object
196 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns
197 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
200 @defun numberp object
201 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or
202 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
205 @defun wholenump object
206 @cindex natural numbers
207 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase
208 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative
209 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is
210 considered non-negative.
213 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}.
217 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t}
218 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number.
220 These two forms are equivalent: @code{(zerop x)} @equiv{} @code{(= x 0)}.
223 @node Comparison of Numbers
224 @section Comparison of Numbers
225 @cindex number equality
227 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use
228 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point
229 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to
230 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same
231 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values
234 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp.
235 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent @code{=} where integers are
236 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an
237 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an
238 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any
239 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not
240 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you
241 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the
242 representation of integers in a future Emacs version.
244 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not
245 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating
246 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality.
247 Here's a function to do this:
250 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6)
251 (defun approx-equal (x y)
253 (max (abs x) (abs y)))
257 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq}
259 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires
260 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two
261 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp
262 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a
263 limited range of integer values.
266 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
267 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
268 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
271 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
272 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
273 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are.
276 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
277 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than
278 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
281 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
282 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal
283 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
287 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
288 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater
289 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
293 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
294 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or
295 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
299 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
300 This function returns the largest of its arguments.
312 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
313 This function returns the smallest of its arguments.
321 @node Numeric Conversions
322 @section Numeric Conversions
323 @cindex rounding in conversions
325 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}.
328 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point.
329 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns
333 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers;
334 they differ in how they round. These functions accept integer arguments
335 also, and return such arguments unchanged.
337 @defun truncate number
338 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards
342 @defun floor number &optional divisor
343 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward
344 (towards negative infinity).
346 If @var{divisor} is specified, @var{number} is divided by @var{divisor}
347 before the floor is taken; this is the division operation that
348 corresponds to @code{mod}. An @code{arith-error} results if
352 @defun ceiling number
353 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward
354 (towards positive infinity).
358 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the
362 @node Arithmetic Operations
363 @section Arithmetic Operations
365 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations:
366 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus
367 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to
368 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and
371 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value
372 if any argument is floating.
374 It is important to note that in GNU Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions
375 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 8388607)} may evaluate to
376 @minus{}8388608, depending on your hardware.
378 @defun 1+ number-or-marker
379 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1.
389 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does
390 not increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus,
397 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq},
406 @defun 1- number-or-marker
407 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1.
411 This returns the absolute value of @var{number}.
414 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers
415 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments,
416 @code{+} returns 0. It does not check for overflow.
428 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest other-numbers-or-markers
429 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction.
430 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the
431 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of
432 the @var{other-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker},
433 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0. This
434 function does not check for overflow.
446 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers
447 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the
448 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1. It does
449 not check for overflow.
461 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors
462 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the
463 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it
464 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a
467 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too.
468 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result
469 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round
470 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function
471 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also
472 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known
473 machines round in the standard fashion.
475 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division
476 If you divide by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled.
490 The result of @code{(/ -17 6)} could in principle be -3 on some
494 @defun % dividend divisor
496 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend}
497 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers.
499 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent
500 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike.
502 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.
515 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor},
519 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor})
520 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor}))
525 always equals @var{dividend}.
528 @defun mod dividend divisor
530 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor};
531 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend}
532 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}.
533 The arguments must be numbers or markers.
535 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative
536 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the
537 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that
538 quotient to compute the remainder.
540 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.
555 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor},
559 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor})
560 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor}))
565 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if
566 either argument is floating point.
569 @node Rounding Operations
570 @section Rounding Operations
571 @cindex rounding without conversion
573 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround} and
574 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating
575 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the
576 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above;
577 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero;
578 @code{fround}, the nearest integer.
581 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and
582 returns that value as a floating point number.
585 @defun fceiling float
586 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and
587 returns that value as a floating point number.
590 @defun ftruncate float
591 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and
592 returns that value as a floating point number.
596 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value,
597 and returns that value as a floating point number.
600 @node Bitwise Operations
601 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers
603 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a
604 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise
605 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example,
606 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places,
607 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over''.
609 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers.
611 @defun lsh integer1 count
612 @cindex logical shift
613 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the
614 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right
615 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If
616 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost
617 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if
618 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below.
620 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one
621 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary
622 pattern; the rest are all zero.
628 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.}
629 00000101 @result{} 00001010
633 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.}
634 00000111 @result{} 00001110
639 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to
640 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous
643 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does
644 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits
645 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting 8,388,607
646 produces @minus{}2 on a 24-bit machine:
649 (lsh 8388607 1) ; @r{left shift}
653 In binary, in the 28-bit implementation, the argument looks like this:
657 ;; @r{Decimal 134.217,727}
658 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
663 which becomes the following when left shifted:
667 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2}
668 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110
672 Shifting the pattern of bits two places to the left produces results
673 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers):
679 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.}
680 00000011 @result{} 00001100
684 On the other hand, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right
691 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.}
692 00000110 @result{} 00000011
698 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.}
699 00000101 @result{} 00000010
704 As the example illustrates, shifting the pattern of bits one place to
705 the right divides the value of the binary number by two, rounding downward.
708 @defun ash integer1 count
709 @cindex arithmetic shift
710 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1}
711 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count}
714 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when
715 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case,
716 @code{ash} puts a one in the leftmost position, while @code{lsh} puts
717 a zero in the leftmost position.
719 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right
724 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3
725 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.}
726 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010
728 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101
732 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with
733 @code{lsh} looks like this:
737 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 134217725
738 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 134,217,725.}
739 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010
741 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101
745 Here are other examples:
747 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem
748 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92
751 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values}
753 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
754 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100}
759 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
760 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100}
765 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
766 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001}
773 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
774 @result{} 4194302 ; = @r{0011 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110}
777 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
778 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110}
783 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers
786 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the
787 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is
788 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1
791 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and
792 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100.
793 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they
794 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set.
795 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of
796 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's.
808 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of
809 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand}
810 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If
811 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
815 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values}
817 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
818 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
819 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
823 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
824 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
825 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100}
826 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100}
831 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111}
836 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers
837 @cindex logical inclusive or
839 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit
840 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least
841 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero,
842 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is
843 passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
847 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values}
849 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
850 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
851 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
855 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
856 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
857 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111}
858 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111}
863 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers
864 @cindex bitwise exclusive or
865 @cindex logical exclusive or
866 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the
867 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is
868 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the
869 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If
870 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
874 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values}
876 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
877 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
878 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001}
882 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
883 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
884 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111}
885 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
890 @defun lognot integer
893 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th
894 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in
895 @var{integer}, and vice-versa.
900 ;; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
902 ;; -6 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010}
906 @node Transcendental Functions
907 @section Transcendental Functions
908 @cindex transcendental functions
909 @cindex mathematical functions
911 These mathematical functions are available if floating point is
912 supported. They allow integers as well as floating point numbers
918 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured
923 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between @minus{}pi/2
924 and pi/2 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg}
925 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN.
929 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and pi
930 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg}
931 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN.
935 The value of @code{(atan @var{arg})} is a number between @minus{}pi/2
936 and pi/2 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{arg}.
940 This is the exponential function; it returns @i{e} to the power
941 @var{arg}. @i{e} is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the
942 base of natural logarithms.
945 @defun log arg &optional base
946 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}.
947 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base @var{e} is used. If @var{arg}
948 is negative, the result is a NaN.
953 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more
954 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})}
959 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more
960 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would
966 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If
967 @var{arg} is negative, the result is a NaN. @code{(log10 @var{x})}
968 @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least approximately.
972 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both
973 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an
974 integer; in this case, it is truncated to fit the range of possible
979 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative,
984 @section Random Numbers
985 @cindex random numbers
987 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers.
988 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of
989 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The
990 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that
991 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally
992 often in a pseudo-random series.
994 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number.
995 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always
996 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the
997 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually
998 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the
999 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns
1000 -1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030. This
1001 repeatability is helpful for debugging.
1003 If you want truly unpredictable random numbers, execute @code{(random
1004 t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of day and on
1005 Emacs's process @sc{id} number.
1007 @defun random &optional limit
1008 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a
1009 series of pseudo-random integers.
1011 If @var{limit} is @code{nil}, then the value may in principle be any
1012 integer. If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to
1013 be nonnegative and less than @var{limit} (only in Emacs 19).
1015 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the
1016 current time of day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number.
1017 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage!
1019 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result
1020 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger
1021 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum.