7 Network Working Group M. Smith, Ed.
8 Request for Comments: 4516 Pearl Crescent, LLC
9 Obsoletes: 2255 T. Howes
10 Category: Standards Track Opsware, Inc.
14 Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP):
15 Uniform Resource Locator
19 This document specifies an Internet standards track protocol for the
20 Internet community, and requests discussion and suggestions for
21 improvements. Please refer to the current edition of the "Internet
22 Official Protocol Standards" (STD 1) for the standardization state
23 and status of this protocol. Distribution of this memo is unlimited.
27 Copyright (C) The Internet Society (2006).
31 This document describes a format for a Lightweight Directory Access
32 Protocol (LDAP) Uniform Resource Locator (URL). An LDAP URL
33 describes an LDAP search operation that is used to retrieve
34 information from an LDAP directory, or, in the context of an LDAP
35 referral or reference, an LDAP URL describes a service where an LDAP
36 operation may be progressed.
40 1. Introduction ....................................................2
41 2. URL Definition ..................................................2
42 2.1. Percent-Encoding ...........................................4
43 3. Defaults for Fields of the LDAP URL .............................5
44 4. Examples ........................................................6
45 5. Security Considerations .........................................8
46 6. Normative References ............................................9
47 7. Informative References .........................................10
48 8. Acknowledgements ...............................................10
49 Appendix A: Changes Since RFC 2255 ................................11
50 A.1. Technical Changes .........................................11
51 A.2. Editorial Changes .........................................11
58 Smith & Howes Standards Track [Page 1]
60 RFC 4516 LDAP: Uniform Resource Locator June 2006
65 LDAP is the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol [RFC4510]. This
66 document specifies the LDAP URL format for version 3 of LDAP and
67 clarifies how LDAP URLs are resolved. This document also defines an
68 extension mechanism for LDAP URLs. This mechanism may be used to
69 provide access to new LDAP extensions.
71 Note that not all the parameters of the LDAP search operation
72 described in [RFC4511] can be expressed using the format defined in
73 this document. Note also that URLs may be used to represent
74 reference knowledge, including that for non-search operations.
76 This document is an integral part of the LDAP technical specification
77 [RFC4510], which obsoletes the previously defined LDAP technical
78 specification, RFC 3377, in its entirety.
80 This document replaces RFC 2255. See Appendix A for a list of
81 changes relative to RFC 2255.
83 The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
84 "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in this
85 document are to be interpreted as described in BCP 14 [RFC2119].
89 An LDAP URL begins with the protocol prefix "ldap" and is defined by
90 the following grammar, following the ABNF notation defined in
93 ldapurl = scheme COLON SLASH SLASH [host [COLON port]]
94 [SLASH dn [QUESTION [attributes]
95 [QUESTION [scope] [QUESTION [filter]
96 [QUESTION extensions]]]]]
97 ; <host> and <port> are defined
98 ; in Sections 3.2.2 and 3.2.3
100 ; <filter> is from Section 3 of
101 ; [RFC4515], subject to the
103 ; "Percent-Encoding" section
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116 RFC 4516 LDAP: Uniform Resource Locator June 2006
119 dn = distinguishedName ; From Section 3 of [RFC4514],
120 ; subject to the provisions of
121 ; the "Percent-Encoding"
124 attributes = attrdesc *(COMMA attrdesc)
125 attrdesc = selector *(COMMA selector)
126 selector = attributeSelector ; From Section 4.5.1 of
127 ; [RFC4511], subject to the
129 ; "Percent-Encoding" section
132 scope = "base" / "one" / "sub"
133 extensions = extension *(COMMA extension)
134 extension = [EXCLAMATION] extype [EQUALS exvalue]
135 extype = oid ; From section 1.4 of [RFC4512].
137 exvalue = LDAPString ; From section 4.1.2 of
138 ; [RFC4511], subject to the
140 ; "Percent-Encoding" section
143 EXCLAMATION = %x21 ; exclamation mark ("!")
144 SLASH = %x2F ; forward slash ("/")
145 COLON = %x3A ; colon (":")
146 QUESTION = %x3F ; question mark ("?")
148 The "ldap" prefix indicates an entry or entries accessible from the
149 LDAP server running on the given hostname at the given portnumber.
150 Note that the <host> may contain literal IPv6 addresses as specified
151 in Section 3.2.2 of [RFC3986].
153 The <dn> is an LDAP Distinguished Name using the string format
154 described in [RFC4514]. It identifies the base object of the LDAP
155 search or the target of a non-search operation.
157 The <attributes> construct is used to indicate which attributes
158 should be returned from the entry or entries.
160 The <scope> construct is used to specify the scope of the search to
161 perform in the given LDAP server. The allowable scopes are "base"
162 for a base object search, "one" for a one-level search, or "sub" for
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172 RFC 4516 LDAP: Uniform Resource Locator June 2006
175 The <filter> is used to specify the search filter to apply to entries
176 within the specified scope during the search. It has the format
177 specified in [RFC4515].
179 The <extensions> construct provides the LDAP URL with an
180 extensibility mechanism, allowing the capabilities of the URL to be
181 extended in the future. Extensions are a simple comma-separated list
182 of type=value pairs, where the =value portion MAY be omitted for
183 options not requiring it. Each type=value pair is a separate
184 extension. These LDAP URL extensions are not necessarily related to
185 any of the LDAP extension mechanisms. Extensions may be supported or
186 unsupported by the client resolving the URL. An extension prefixed
187 with a '!' character (ASCII 0x21) is critical. An extension not
188 prefixed with a '!' character is non-critical.
190 If an LDAP URL extension is implemented (that is, if the
191 implementation understands it and is able to use it), the
192 implementation MUST make use of it. If an extension is not
193 implemented and is marked critical, the implementation MUST NOT
194 process the URL. If an extension is not implemented and is not
195 marked critical, the implementation MUST ignore the extension.
197 The extension type (<extype>) MAY be specified using the numeric OID
198 <numericoid> form (e.g., 1.2.3.4) or the descriptor <descr> form
199 (e.g., myLDAPURLExtension). Use of the <descr> form SHOULD be
200 restricted to registered object identifier descriptive names. See
201 [RFC4520] for registration details and usage guidelines for
204 No LDAP URL extensions are defined in this document. Other documents
205 or a future version of this document MAY define one or more
208 2.1. Percent-Encoding
210 A generated LDAP URL MUST consist only of the restricted set of
211 characters included in one of the following three productions defined
218 Implementations SHOULD accept other valid UTF-8 strings [RFC3629] as
219 input. An octet MUST be encoded using the percent-encoding mechanism
220 described in section 2.1 of [RFC3986] in any of these situations:
226 Smith & Howes Standards Track [Page 4]
228 RFC 4516 LDAP: Uniform Resource Locator June 2006
231 The octet is not in the reserved set defined in section 2.2 of
232 [RFC3986] or in the unreserved set defined in section 2.3 of
235 It is the single Reserved character '?' and occurs inside a <dn>,
236 <filter>, or other element of an LDAP URL.
238 It is a comma character ',' that occurs inside an <exvalue>.
240 Note that before the percent-encoding mechanism is applied, the
241 extensions component of the LDAP URL may contain one or more null
242 (zero) bytes. No other component may.
244 3. Defaults for Fields of the LDAP URL
246 Some fields of the LDAP URL are optional, as described above. In the
247 absence of any other specification, the following general defaults
248 SHOULD be used when a field is absent. Note that other documents MAY
249 specify different defaulting rules; for example, section 4.1.10 of
250 [RFC4511] specifies a different rule for determining the correct DN
251 to use when it is absent in an LDAP URL that is returned as a
255 If no <host> is given, the client must have some a priori
256 knowledge of an appropriate LDAP server to contact.
259 The default LDAP port is TCP port 389.
262 If no <dn> is given, the default is the zero-length DN, "".
265 If the <attributes> part is omitted, all user attributes of the
266 entry or entries should be requested (e.g., by setting the
267 attributes field AttributeDescriptionList in the LDAP search
268 request to a NULL list, or by using the special <alluserattrs>
272 If <scope> is omitted, a <scope> of "base" is assumed.
275 If <filter> is omitted, a filter of "(objectClass=*)" is assumed.
278 If <extensions> is omitted, no extensions are assumed.
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284 RFC 4516 LDAP: Uniform Resource Locator June 2006
289 The following are some example LDAP URLs that use the format defined
290 above. The first example is an LDAP URL referring to the University
291 of Michigan entry, available from an LDAP server of the client's
294 ldap:///o=University%20of%20Michigan,c=US
296 The next example is an LDAP URL referring to the University of
297 Michigan entry in a particular ldap server:
299 ldap://ldap1.example.net/o=University%20of%20Michigan,c=US
301 Both of these URLs correspond to a base object search of the
302 "o=University of Michigan,c=US" entry using a filter of
303 "(objectclass=*)", requesting all attributes.
305 The next example is an LDAP URL referring to only the postalAddress
306 attribute of the University of Michigan entry:
308 ldap://ldap1.example.net/o=University%20of%20Michigan,
311 The corresponding LDAP search operation is the same as in the
312 previous example, except that only the postalAddress attribute is
315 The next example is an LDAP URL referring to the set of entries found
316 by querying the given LDAP server on port 6666 and doing a subtree
317 search of the University of Michigan for any entry with a common name
318 of "Babs Jensen", retrieving all attributes:
320 ldap://ldap1.example.net:6666/o=University%20of%20Michigan,
321 c=US??sub?(cn=Babs%20Jensen)
323 The next example is an LDAP URL referring to all children of the c=GB
326 LDAP://ldap1.example.com/c=GB?objectClass?ONE
328 The objectClass attribute is requested to be returned along with the
329 entries, and the default filter of "(objectclass=*)" is used.
331 The next example is an LDAP URL to retrieve the mail attribute for
332 the LDAP entry named "o=Question?,c=US", illustrating the use of the
333 percent-encoding mechanism on the reserved character '?'.
338 Smith & Howes Standards Track [Page 6]
340 RFC 4516 LDAP: Uniform Resource Locator June 2006
343 ldap://ldap2.example.com/o=Question%3f,c=US?mail
345 The next example (which is broken into two lines for readability)
346 illustrates the interaction between the LDAP string representation of
347 the filters-quoting mechanism and the URL-quoting mechanisms.
349 ldap://ldap3.example.com/o=Babsco,c=US
350 ???(four-octet=%5c00%5c00%5c00%5c04)
352 The filter in this example uses the LDAP escaping mechanism of \ to
353 encode three zero or null bytes in the value. In LDAP, the filter
354 would be written as (four-octet=\00\00\00\04). Because the \
355 character must be escaped in a URL, the \s are percent-encoded as %5c
356 (or %5C) in the URL encoding.
358 The next example illustrates the interaction between the LDAP string
359 representation of the DNs-quoting mechanism and URL-quoting
362 ldap://ldap.example.com/o=An%20Example%5C2C%20Inc.,c=US
364 The DN encoded in the above URL is:
366 o=An Example\2C Inc.,c=US
368 That is, the left-most RDN value is:
372 The following three URLs are equivalent, assuming that the defaulting
373 rules specified in Section 3 of this document are used:
375 ldap://ldap.example.net
376 ldap://ldap.example.net/
377 ldap://ldap.example.net/?
379 These three URLs point to the root DSE on the ldap.example.net
382 The final two examples show use of a hypothetical, experimental bind
383 name extension (the value associated with the extension is an LDAP
386 ldap:///??sub??e-bindname=cn=Manager%2cdc=example%2cdc=com
387 ldap:///??sub??!e-bindname=cn=Manager%2cdc=example%2cdc=com
394 Smith & Howes Standards Track [Page 7]
396 RFC 4516 LDAP: Uniform Resource Locator June 2006
399 The two URLs are the same, except that the second one marks the
400 e-bindname extension as critical. Notice the use of the percent-
401 encoding mechanism to encode the commas within the distinguished name
402 value in the e-bindname extension.
404 5. Security Considerations
406 The general URL security considerations discussed in [RFC3986] are
407 relevant for LDAP URLs.
409 The use of security mechanisms when processing LDAP URLs requires
410 particular care, since clients may encounter many different servers
411 via URLs, and since URLs are likely to be processed automatically,
412 without user intervention. A client SHOULD have a user-configurable
413 policy that controls which servers the client will establish LDAP
414 sessions with and with which security mechanisms, and SHOULD NOT
415 establish LDAP sessions that are inconsistent with this policy. If a
416 client chooses to reuse an existing LDAP session when resolving one
417 or more LDAP URLs, it MUST ensure that the session is compatible with
418 the URL and that no security policies are violated.
420 Sending authentication information, no matter the mechanism, may
421 violate a user's privacy requirements. In the absence of specific
422 policy permitting authentication information to be sent to a server,
423 a client should use an anonymous LDAP session. (Note that clients
424 conforming to previous LDAP URL specifications, where all LDAP
425 sessions are anonymous and unprotected, are consistent with this
426 specification; they simply have the default security policy.) Simply
427 opening a transport connection to another server may violate some
428 users' privacy requirements, so clients should provide the user with
429 a way to control URL processing.
431 Some authentication methods, in particular, reusable passwords sent
432 to the server, may reveal easily-abused information to the remote
433 server or to eavesdroppers in transit and should not be used in URL
434 processing unless they are explicitly permitted by policy.
435 Confirmation by the human user of the use of authentication
436 information is appropriate in many circumstances. Use of strong
437 authentication methods that do not reveal sensitive information is
438 much preferred. If the URL represents a referral for an update
439 operation, strong authentication methods SHOULD be used. Please
440 refer to the Security Considerations section of [RFC4513] for more
443 The LDAP URL format allows the specification of an arbitrary LDAP
444 search operation to be performed when evaluating the LDAP URL.
445 Following an LDAP URL may cause unexpected results, for example, the
446 retrieval of large amounts of data or the initiation of a long-lived
450 Smith & Howes Standards Track [Page 8]
452 RFC 4516 LDAP: Uniform Resource Locator June 2006
455 search. The security implications of resolving an LDAP URL are the
456 same as those of resolving an LDAP search query.
458 6. Normative References
460 [RFC2119] Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
461 Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119, March 1997.
463 [RFC3629] Yergeau, F., "UTF-8, a transformation format of ISO
464 10646", STD 63, RFC 3629, November 2003.
466 [RFC3986] Berners-Lee, T., Fielding, R., and L. Masinter, "Uniform
467 Resource Identifier (URI): Generic Syntax", STD 66, RFC
470 [RFC4234] Crocker, D. and P. Overell, "Augmented BNF for Syntax
471 Specifications: ABNF", RFC 4234, October 2005.
473 [RFC4510] Zeilenga, K., Ed., "Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
474 (LDAP): Technical Specification Road Map", RFC 4510, June
477 [RFC4511] Sermersheim, J., Ed., "Lightweight Directory Access
478 Protocol (LDAP): The Protocol", RFC 4511, June 2006.
480 [RFC4512] Zeilenga, K., "Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
481 (LDAP): Directory Information Models", RFC 4512, June
484 [RFC4513] Harrison, R., Ed., "Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
485 (LDAP): Authentication Methods and Security Mechanisms",
488 [RFC4514] Zeilenga, K., Ed., "Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
489 (LDAP): String Representation of Distinguished Names", RFC
492 [RFC4515] Smith, M. Ed. and T. Howes, "Lightweight Directory Access
493 Protocol (LDAP): String Representation of Search Filters",
506 Smith & Howes Standards Track [Page 9]
508 RFC 4516 LDAP: Uniform Resource Locator June 2006
511 7. Informative References
513 [RFC2396] Berners-Lee, T., Fielding, R., and L. Masinter, "Uniform
514 Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax", RFC 2396,
517 [RFC4520] Zeilenga, K., "Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
518 Considerations for the Lightweight Directory Access
519 Protocol (LDAP)", BCP 64, RFC 4520, June 2006.
523 The LDAP URL format was originally defined at the University of
524 Michigan. This material is based upon work supported by the National
525 Science Foundation under Grant No. NCR-9416667. The support of both
526 the University of Michigan and the National Science Foundation is
527 gratefully acknowledged.
529 This document obsoletes RFC 2255 by Tim Howes and Mark Smith.
530 Changes included in this revised specification are based upon
531 discussions among the authors, discussions within the LDAP (v3)
532 Revision Working Group (ldapbis), and discussions within other IETF
533 Working Groups. The contributions of individuals in these working
534 groups is gratefully acknowledged. Several people in particular have
535 made valuable comments on this document: RL "Bob" Morgan, Mark Wahl,
536 Kurt Zeilenga, Jim Sermersheim, and Hallvard Furuseth deserve special
537 thanks for their contributions.
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564 RFC 4516 LDAP: Uniform Resource Locator June 2006
567 Appendix A: Changes Since RFC 2255
569 A.1. Technical Changes
571 The following technical changes were made to the contents of the "URL
574 Revised all of the ABNF to use common productions from [RFC4512].
576 Replaced references to [RFC2396] with a reference to [RFC3986] (this
577 allows literal IPv6 addresses to be used inside the <host> portion of
578 the URL, and a note was added to remind the reader of this
579 enhancement). Referencing [RFC3986] required changes to the ABNF and
580 text so that productions that are no longer defined by [RFC3986] are
581 not used. For example, <hostport> is not defined by [RFC3986] so it
582 has been replaced with host [COLON port]. Note that [RFC3986]
583 includes new definitions for the "Reserved" and "Unreserved" sets of
584 characters, and the net result is that the following two additional
585 characters should be percent-encoded when they appear anywhere in the
586 data used to construct an LDAP URL: "[" and "]" (these two characters
587 were first added to the Reserved set by RFC 2732).
589 Changed the definition of <attrdesc> to refer to <attributeSelector>
590 from [RFC4511]. This allows the use of "*" in the <attrdesc> part of
591 the URL. It is believed that existing implementations of RFC 2255
592 already support this.
594 Avoided use of <prose-val> (bracketed-string) productions in the
595 <dn>, <host>, <attrdesc>, and <exvalue> rules.
597 Changed the ABNF for <ldapurl> to group the <dn> component with the
600 Changed the <extype> rule to be an <oid> from [RFC4512].
602 Changed the text about extension types so it references [RFC4520].
603 Reordered rules to more closely follow the order in which the
604 elements appear in the URL.
606 "Bindname Extension": removed due to lack of known implementations.
608 A.2. Editorial Changes
610 Changed document title to include "LDAP:" prefix.
612 IESG Note: removed note about lack of satisfactory mandatory
613 authentication mechanisms.
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620 RFC 4516 LDAP: Uniform Resource Locator June 2006
623 "Status of this Memo" section: updated boilerplate to match current
626 "Abstract" section: separated from introductory material.
628 "Table of Contents" and "Intellectual Property" sections: added.
630 "Introduction" section: new section; separated from the Abstract.
631 Changed the text indicate that RFC 2255 is replaced by this document
632 (instead of RFC 1959). Added text to indicate that LDAP URLs are
633 used for references and referrals. Fixed typo (replaced the nonsense
634 phrase "to perform to retrieve" with "used to retrieve"). Added a
635 note to let the reader know that not all of the parameters of the
636 LDAP search operation described in [RFC4511] can be expressed using
639 "URL Definition" section: removed second copy of <ldapurl> grammar
640 and following two paragraphs (editorial error in RFC 2255). Fixed
641 line break within '!' sequence. Reformatted the ABNF to improve
642 readability by aligning comments and adding some blank lines.
643 Replaced "residing in the LDAP server" with "accessible from the LDAP
644 server" in the sentence immediately following the ABNF. Removed the
645 sentence "Individual attrdesc names are as defined for
646 AttributeDescription in [RFC4511]." because [RFC4511]'s
647 <attributeSelector> is now used directly in the ABNF. Reworded last
648 paragraph to clarify which characters must be percent-encoded. Added
649 text to indicate that LDAP URLs are used for references and
650 referrals. Added text that refers to the ABNF from RFC 4234.
651 Clarified and strengthened the requirements with respect to
652 processing of URLs that contain implemented and not implemented
653 extensions (the approach now closely matches that specified in
654 [RFC4511] for LDAP controls).
656 "Defaults for Fields of the LDAP URL" section: added; formed by
657 moving text about defaults out of the "URL Definition" section.
658 Replaced direct reference to the attribute name "*" with a reference
659 to the special <alluserattrs> selector "*" defined in [RFC4511].
661 "URL Processing" section: removed.
663 "Examples" section: Modified examples to use example.com and
664 example.net hostnames. Added missing '?' to the LDAP URL example
665 whose filter contains three null bytes. Removed space after one
666 comma within a DN. Revised the bindname example to use e-bindname.
667 Changed the name of an attribute used in one example from "int" to
668 "four-octet" to avoid potential confusion. Added an example that
669 demonstrates the interaction between DN escaping and URL percent-
670 encoding. Added some examples to show URL equivalence with respect
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676 RFC 4516 LDAP: Uniform Resource Locator June 2006
679 to the <dn> portion of the URL. Used uppercase in some examples to
680 remind the reader that some tokens are case-insensitive.
682 "Security Considerations" section: Added a note about connection
683 reuse. Added a note about using strong authentication methods for
684 updates. Added a reference to [RFC4513]. Added note that simply
685 opening a connection may violate some users' privacy requirements.
686 Adopted the working group's revised LDAP terminology specification by
687 replacing the word "connection" with "LDAP session" or "LDAP
688 connection" as appropriate.
690 "Acknowledgements" section: added statement that this document
691 obsoletes RFC 2255. Added Kurt Zeilenga, Jim Sermersheim, and
694 "Normative References" section: renamed from "References" per new RFC
695 guidelines. Changed from [1] style to [RFC4511] style throughout the
696 document. Added references to RFC 4234 and RFC 3629. Updated all
697 RFC 1738 references to point to the appropriate sections within
698 [RFC3986]. Updated the LDAP references to refer to LDAPBis WG
699 documents. Removed the reference to the LDAP Attribute Syntaxes
700 document and added references to the [RFC4513], [RFC4520], and
703 "Informative References" section: added.
705 Header and "Authors' Addresses" sections: added "editor" next to Mark
706 Smith's name. Updated affiliation and contact information.
708 Copyright: updated the year.
710 Throughout the document: surrounded the names of all ABNF productions
711 with "<" and ">" where they are used in descriptive text.
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732 RFC 4516 LDAP: Uniform Resource Locator June 2006
743 Phone: +1 734 944-2856
744 EMail: mcs@pearlcrescent.com
753 Phone: +1 408 744-7509
754 EMail: howes@opsware.com
786 Smith & Howes Standards Track [Page 14]
788 RFC 4516 LDAP: Uniform Resource Locator June 2006
791 Full Copyright Statement
793 Copyright (C) The Internet Society (2006).
795 This document is subject to the rights, licenses and restrictions
796 contained in BCP 78, and except as set forth therein, the authors
797 retain all their rights.
799 This document and the information contained herein are provided on an
800 "AS IS" basis and THE CONTRIBUTOR, THE ORGANIZATION HE/SHE REPRESENTS
801 OR IS SPONSORED BY (IF ANY), THE INTERNET SOCIETY AND THE INTERNET
802 ENGINEERING TASK FORCE DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
803 INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO ANY WARRANTY THAT THE USE OF THE
804 INFORMATION HEREIN WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY RIGHTS OR ANY IMPLIED
805 WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
807 Intellectual Property
809 The IETF takes no position regarding the validity or scope of any
810 Intellectual Property Rights or other rights that might be claimed to
811 pertain to the implementation or use of the technology described in
812 this document or the extent to which any license under such rights
813 might or might not be available; nor does it represent that it has
814 made any independent effort to identify any such rights. Information
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816 found in BCP 78 and BCP 79.
818 Copies of IPR disclosures made to the IETF Secretariat and any
819 assurances of licenses to be made available, or the result of an
820 attempt made to obtain a general license or permission for the use of
821 such proprietary rights by implementers or users of this
822 specification can be obtained from the IETF on-line IPR repository at
823 http://www.ietf.org/ipr.
825 The IETF invites any interested party to bring to its attention any
826 copyrights, patents or patent applications, or other proprietary
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828 this standard. Please address the information to the IETF at
833 Funding for the RFC Editor function is provided by the IETF
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842 Smith & Howes Standards Track [Page 15]