Don't need to nest the "race conditions with..." sections so deeply.

[findutils.git] / doc / find.texi

\input texinfo @c -*-texinfo-*-
@c %**start of header
@setfilename find.info
@settitle Finding Files
@c For double-sided printing, uncomment:
@c @setchapternewpage odd
@c %**end of header

@include version.texi

@iftex
@finalout
@end iftex

@dircategory Basics
@direntry
* Finding files: (find).        Operating on files matching certain criteria.
@end direntry

@ifinfo

This file documents the GNU utilities for finding files that match
certain criteria and performing various operations on them.

Copyright (C) 1994,1996,1998,2000,2001,2003,2004 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of
this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice
are preserved on all copies.

@ignore
Permission is granted to process this file through TeX and print the
results, provided the printed document carries copying permission
notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph
(this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual).

@end ignore
Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this
manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire
resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission
notice identical to this one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual
into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions,
except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation approved
by the Foundation.
@end ifinfo

@titlepage
@title Finding Files
@subtitle Edition @value{EDITION}, for GNU @code{find} version @value{VERSION}
@subtitle @value{UPDATED}
@author by David MacKenzie

@page
@vskip 0pt plus 1filll
Copyright @copyright{} 1994,1996,1998,2000,2001,2003,2004 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of
this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice
are preserved on all copies.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this
manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire
resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission
notice identical to this one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual
into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions,
except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation approved
by the Foundation.
@end titlepage

@node Top, Introduction, , (dir)
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up

@ifinfo
This file documents the GNU utilities for finding files that match
certain criteria and performing various actions on them.
This is edition @value{EDITION}, for @code{find} version @value{VERSION}.
@end ifinfo

@c The master menu, created with texinfo-master-menu, goes here.

@menu
* Introduction::                Summary of the tasks this manual describes.
* Finding Files::               Finding files that match certain criteria.
* Actions::                     Doing things to files you have found.
* Common Tasks::                Solutions to common real-world problems.
* Databases::                   Maintaining file name databases.
* File Permissions::            How to control access to files.
* Reference::                   Summary of how to invoke the programs.
* Security Considerations::     Security issues relating to findutils.
* Error Messages::              Explanations of some messages you might see.
* Primary Index::               The components of @code{find} expressions.
@end menu

@node Introduction, Finding Files, Top, Top
@chapter Introduction

This manual shows how to find files that meet criteria you specify, and
how to perform various actions on the files that you find.  The
principal programs that you use to perform these tasks are @code{find},
@code{locate}, and @code{xargs}.  Some of the examples in this manual
use capabilities specific to the GNU versions of those programs.

GNU @code{find} was originally written by Eric Decker, with enhancements
by David MacKenzie, Jay Plett, and Tim Wood.  GNU @code{xargs} was
originally written by Mike Rendell, with enhancements by David
MacKenzie.  GNU @code{locate} and its associated utilities were
originally written by James Woods, with enhancements by David MacKenzie.
The idea for @samp{find -print0} and @samp{xargs -0} came from Dan
Bernstein.  The current maintainer of GNU findutils (and this manual) is
James Youngman.  Many other people have contributed bug fixes, small
improvements, and helpful suggestions.  Thanks!

Mail suggestions and bug reports for these programs to
@code{bug-findutils@@gnu.org}.  Please include the version
number, which you can get by running @samp{find --version}.

@menu
* Scope::
* Overview::
* find Expressions::
@end menu

@node Scope
@section Scope

For brevity, the word @dfn{file} in this manual means a regular file, a
directory, a symbolic link, or any other kind of node that has a
directory entry.  A directory entry is also called a @dfn{file name}.  A
file name may contain some, all, or none of the directories in a path
that leads to the file.  These are all examples of what this manual
calls ``file names'':

@example
parser.c
README
./budget/may-94.sc
fred/.cshrc
/usr/local/include/termcap.h
@end example

A @dfn{directory tree} is a directory and the files it contains, all of
its subdirectories and the files they contain, etc.  It can also be a
single non-directory file.

These programs enable you to find the files in one or more directory
trees that:

@itemize @bullet
@item
have names that contain certain text or match a certain pattern;
@item
are links to certain files;
@item
were last used during a certain period of time;
@item
are within a certain size range;
@item
are of a certain type (regular file, directory, symbolic link, etc.);
@item
are owned by a certain user or group;
@item
have certain access permissions;
@item
contain text that matches a certain pattern;
@item
are within a certain depth in the directory tree;
@item
or some combination of the above.
@end itemize

Once you have found the files you're looking for (or files that are
potentially the ones you're looking for), you can do more to them than
simply list their names.  You can get any combination of the files'
attributes, or process the files in many ways, either individually or in
groups of various sizes.  Actions that you might want to perform on the
files you have found include, but are not limited to:

@itemize @bullet
@item
view or edit
@item
store in an archive
@item
remove or rename
@item
change access permissions
@item
classify into groups
@end itemize

This manual describes how to perform each of those tasks, and more.

@node Overview
@section Overview

The principal programs used for making lists of files that match given
criteria and running commands on them are @code{find}, @code{locate},
and @code{xargs}.  An additional command, @code{updatedb}, is used by
system administrators to create databases for @code{locate} to use.

@code{find} searches for files in a directory hierarchy and prints
information about the files it found.  It is run like this:

@example
find @r{[}@var{file}@dots{}@r{]} @r{[}@var{expression}@r{]}
@end example

@noindent
Here is a typical use of @code{find}.  This example prints the names of
all files in the directory tree rooted in @file{/usr/src} whose name
ends with @samp{.c} and that are larger than 100 Kilobytes.
@example
find /usr/src -name '*.c' -size +100k -print
@end example

@code{locate} searches special file name databases for file names that
match patterns.  The system administrator runs the @code{updatedb}
program to create the databases.  @code{locate} is run like this:

@example
locate @r{[}@var{option}@dots{}@r{]} @var{pattern}@dots{}
@end example

@noindent
This example prints the names of all files in the default file name
database whose name ends with @samp{Makefile} or @samp{makefile}.  Which
file names are stored in the database depends on how the system
administrator ran @code{updatedb}.
@example
locate '*[Mm]akefile'
@end example

The name @code{xargs}, pronounced EX-args, means ``combine arguments.''
@code{xargs} builds and executes command lines by gathering together
arguments it reads on the standard input.  Most often, these arguments
are lists of file names generated by @code{find}.  @code{xargs} is run
like this:

@example
xargs @r{[}@var{option}@dots{}@r{]} @r{[}@var{command} @r{[}@var{initial-arguments}@r{]}@r{]}
@end example

@noindent
The following command searches the files listed in the file
@file{file-list} and prints all of the lines in them that contain the
word @samp{typedef}.
@example
xargs grep typedef < file-list
@end example

@node find Expressions
@section @code{find} Expressions

The expression that @code{find} uses to select files consists of one or
more @dfn{primaries}, each of which is a separate command line argument
to @code{find}.  @code{find} evaluates the expression each time it
processes a file.  An expression can contain any of the following types
of primaries:

@table @dfn
@item options
affect overall operation rather than the processing of a specific file;
@item tests
return a true or false value, depending on the file's attributes;
@item actions
have side effects and return a true or false value; and
@item operators
connect the other arguments and affect when and whether they are
evaluated.
@end table

You can omit the operator between two primaries; it defaults to
@samp{-and}.  @xref{Combining Primaries With Operators}, for ways to
connect primaries into more complex expressions.  If the expression
contains no actions other than @samp{-prune}, @samp{-print} is performed
on all files for which the entire expression is true (@pxref{Print File
Name}).

Options take effect immediately, rather than being evaluated for each
file when their place in the expression is reached.  Therefore, for
clarity, it is best to place them at the beginning of the expression.

Many of the primaries take arguments, which immediately follow them in
the next command line argument to @code{find}.  Some arguments are file
names, patterns, or other strings; others are numbers.  Numeric
arguments can be specified as

@table @code
@item +@var{n}
for greater than @var{n},
@item -@var{n}
for less than @var{n},
@item @var{n}
for exactly @var{n}.
@end table

@node Finding Files, Actions, Introduction, Top
@chapter Finding Files

By default, @code{find} prints to the standard output the names of the
files that match the given criteria.  @xref{Actions}, for how to get more
information about the matching files.


@menu
* Name::
* Links::
* Time::
* Size::
* Type::
* Owner::
* Permissions::
* Contents::
* Directories::
* Filesystems::
* Combining Primaries With Operators::
@end menu

@node Name
@section Name

Here are ways to search for files whose name matches a certain pattern.
@xref{Shell Pattern Matching}, for a description of the @var{pattern}
arguments to these tests.

Each of these tests has a case-sensitive version and a case-insensitive
version, whose name begins with @samp{i}.  In a case-insensitive
comparison, the patterns @samp{fo*} and @samp{F??} match the file names
@file{Foo}, @samp{FOO}, @samp{foo}, @samp{fOo}, etc.

@menu
* Base Name Patterns::
* Full Name Patterns::
* Fast Full Name Search::
* Shell Pattern Matching::      Wildcards used by these programs.
@end menu

@node Base Name Patterns
@subsection Base Name Patterns

@deffn Test -name pattern
@deffnx Test -iname pattern
True if the base of the file name (the path with the leading directories
removed) matches shell pattern @var{pattern}.  For @samp{-iname}, the
match is case-insensitive.  To ignore a whole directory tree, use
@samp{-prune} (@pxref{Directories}).  As an example, to find Texinfo
source files in @file{/usr/local/doc}:

@example
find /usr/local/doc -name '*.texi'
@end example
@end deffn

Patterns for @samp{-name} and @samp{-iname} will match a filename with
a leading @samp{.}.  For example the command @samp{find /tmp -name
\*bar} will match the file @file{/tmp/.foobar}.


@node Full Name Patterns
@subsection Full Name Patterns

@deffn Test -wholename pattern
@deffnx Test -iwholename pattern
True if the entire file name, starting with the command line argument
under which the file was found, matches shell pattern @var{pattern}.
For @samp{-iwholename}, the match is case-insensitive.  To ignore a
whole directory tree, use @samp{-prune} rather than checking every
file in the tree (@pxref{Directories}).  The ``entire file name'' as
used by find starts with the starting-point specified on the command
line, and is not converted to an absolute pathname, so for example
@code{cd /; find tmp -wholename /tmp} will never match anything.
@end deffn

@deffn Test -path pattern
@deffnx Test -ipath pattern
These tests are deprecated, but work as for @samp{-wholename} and @samp{-iwholename},
respectively.  The @samp{-ipath} test is a GNU extension, but @samp{-path} is also 
provided by HP-UX @code{find}.
@end deffn

@deffn Test -regex expr
@deffnx Test -iregex expr
True if the entire file name matches regular expression @var{expr}.
This is a match on the whole path, not a search.  For example, to match
a file named @file{./fubar3}, you can use the regular expression
@samp{.*bar.} or @samp{.*b.*3}, but not @samp{f.*r3}.  @xref{Regexps, ,
Syntax of Regular Expressions, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}, for a
description of the syntax of regular expressions.  For @samp{-iregex},
the match is case-insensitive.
@end deffn

@node Fast Full Name Search
@subsection Fast Full Name Search

To search for files by name without having to actually scan the
directories on the disk (which can be slow), you can use the
@code{locate} program.  For each shell pattern you give it,
@code{locate} searches one or more databases of file names and displays
the file names that contain the pattern.  @xref{Shell Pattern Matching},
for details about shell patterns.

If a pattern is a plain string---it contains no
metacharacters---@code{locate} displays all file names in the database
that contain that string.  If a pattern contains
metacharacters, @code{locate} only displays file names that match the
pattern exactly.  As a result, patterns that contain metacharacters
should usually begin with a @samp{*}, and will most often end with one
as well.  The exceptions are patterns that are intended to explicitly
match the beginning or end of a file name.   

If you only want @code{locate} to match against the last component of
the filenames (the ``base name'' of the files) you can use the
@samp{--basename} option.  The opposite behaviour is the default, but
can be selected explicitly by using the option @samp{--wholename}.

The command
@example
locate @var{pattern}
@end example

is almost equivalent to
@example
find @var{directories} -name @var{pattern}
@end example

where @var{directories} are the directories for which the file name
databases contain information.  The differences are that the
@code{locate} information might be out of date, and that @code{locate}
handles wildcards in the pattern slightly differently than @code{find}
(@pxref{Shell Pattern Matching}).

The file name databases contain lists of files that were on the system
when the databases were last updated.  The system administrator can
choose the file name of the default database, the frequency with which
the databases are updated, and the directories for which they contain
entries.

Here is how to select which file name databases @code{locate} searches.
The default is system-dependent.

@table @code
@item --database=@var{path}
@itemx -d @var{path}
Instead of searching the default file name database, search the file
name databases in @var{path}, which is a colon-separated list of
database file names.  You can also use the environment variable
@code{LOCATE_PATH} to set the list of database files to search.  The
option overrides the environment variable if both are used.
@end table

@node Shell Pattern Matching
@subsection Shell Pattern Matching

@code{find} and @code{locate} can compare file names, or parts of file
names, to shell patterns.  A @dfn{shell pattern} is a string that may
contain the following special characters, which are known as
@dfn{wildcards} or @dfn{metacharacters}.

You must quote patterns that contain metacharacters to prevent the shell
from expanding them itself.  Double and single quotes both work; so does
escaping with a backslash.

@table @code
@item *
Matches any zero or more characters.

@item ?
Matches any one character.

@item [@var{string}]
Matches exactly one character that is a member of the string
@var{string}.  This is called a @dfn{character class}.  As a shorthand,
@var{string} may contain ranges, which consist of two characters with a
dash between them.  For example, the class @samp{[a-z0-9_]} matches a
lowercase letter, a number, or an underscore.  You can negate a class by
placing a @samp{!} or @samp{^} immediately after the opening bracket.
Thus, @samp{[^A-Z@@]} matches any character except an uppercase letter
or an at sign.

@item \
Removes the special meaning of the character that follows it.  This
works even in character classes.
@end table

In the @code{find} tests that do shell pattern matching (@samp{-name},
@samp{-wholename}, etc.), wildcards in the pattern will match a @samp{.}
at the beginning of a file name.  This is also the case for
@code{locate}.  Thus, @samp{find -name '*macs'} will match a file
named @file{.emacs}, as will @samp{locate '*macs'}.

Slash characters have no special significance in the shell pattern
matching that @code{find} and @code{locate} do, unlike in the shell, in
which wildcards do not match them.  Therefore, a pattern @samp{foo*bar}
can match a file name @samp{foo3/bar}, and a pattern @samp{./sr*sc} can
match a file name @samp{./src/misc}.

If you want to locate some files with the @samp{locate} command but
don't need to see the full list you can use the @samp{--limit} option
to see just a small number of results, or the @samp{--count} option to
display only the total number of matches.

@node Links
@section Links

There are two ways that files can be linked together.  @dfn{Symbolic
links} are a special type of file whose contents are a portion of the
name of another file.  @dfn{Hard links} are multiple directory entries
for one file; the file names all have the same index node (@dfn{inode})
number on the disk.

@menu
* Symbolic Links::
* Hard Links::
@end menu

@node Symbolic Links
@subsection Symbolic Links

Symbolic links are names that reference other files.  GNU @code{find}
will handle symbolic links in one of two ways; firstly, it can
dereference the links for you - this means that if it comes across a
symbolic link, it examines the file that the link points to, in order
to see if it matches the criteria you have specified.  Secondly, it
can check the link itself in case you might be looking for the actual
link.  If the file that the symbolic link points to is also within the
directory hierarchy you are searching with the @code{find} command,
you may not see a great deal of difference between these two
alternatives.

By default, @code{find} examines symbolic links themselves when it
finds them (and, if it later comes across the linked-to file, it will
examine that, too).  If you would prefer @code{find} to dereference
the links and examine the file that each link points to, specify the
@samp{-L} option to @code{find}.  You can explicitly specify the
default behaviour by using the @samp{-P} option.    The @samp{-H}
option is a half-way-between option which ensures that any symbolic
links listed on the command line are dereferenced, but other symbolic
links are not.

Symbolic links are different to ``hard links'' in the sense that you
need permissions upon the linked-to file in order to be able to
dereference the link.  This can mean that even if you specify the
@samp{-L} option, find may not be able to determine the properties of
the file that the link points to (because you don't have sufficient
permissions).  In this situation, @samp{find} uses the properties of
the link itself.  This also occurs if a symbolic link exists but
points to a file that is missing.

The options controlling the behaviour of @code{find} with respect to
links are as follows :-

@table @samp
@item -P
@code{find} does not dereference symbolic links at all.  This is the
default behaviour.  This option must be specified before any of the
path names on the command line.
@item -H
@code{find} does not dereference symbolic links (except in the case of
file names on the command line, which are dereferenced).  If a
symbolic link cannot be dereferenced, the information for the symbolic
link itself is used.  This option must be specified before any of the
path names on the command line.
@item -L
@code{find} dereferences symbolic links where possible, and where this
is not possible it uses the properties of the symbolic link itself.
This option must be specified before any of the path names on the
command line.  Use of this option also implies the same behaviour as
the @samp{-noleaf} option.   If you later use the @samp{-H} or
@samp{-P} options, this does not turn off @samp{-noleaf}.

@item -follow
This option forms part of the ``expression'' and must be specified
after the path names, but it is otherwise equivalent to @samp{-L}.
@end table

The following differences in behavior occur when the @samp{-L} option
is used:

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{find} follows symbolic links to directories when searching
directory trees.
@item
@samp{-lname} and @samp{-ilname} always return false (unless they
happen to match broken symbolic links).
@item
@samp{-type} reports the types of the files that symbolic links point
to.
@item
Implies @samp{-noleaf} (@pxref{Directories}).
@end itemize

If the @samp{-L} option or the @samp{-H} option is used, 
the filenames used as arguments to @samp{-newer}, @samp{-anewer}, and
@samp{-cnewer} are dereferenced and the timestamp from the pointed-to
file is used instead (if possible -- otherwise the timestamp from the
symbolic link is used).

@deffn Test -lname pattern
@deffnx Test -ilname pattern
True if the file is a symbolic link whose contents match shell pattern
@var{pattern}.  For @samp{-ilname}, the match is case-insensitive.
@xref{Shell Pattern Matching}, for details about the @var{pattern}
argument.  If the @samp{-L} option is in effect, this test will always
fail for symbolic links unless they are broken.  So, to list any
symbolic links to @file{sysdep.c} in the current directory and its
subdirectories, you can do:

@example
find . -lname '*sysdep.c'
@end example
@end deffn

@node Hard Links
@subsection Hard Links

To find hard links, first get the inode number of the file whose links
you want to find.  You can learn a file's inode number and the number of
links to it by running @samp{ls -i} or @samp{find -ls}.  If the file has
more than one link, you can search for the other links by passing that
inode number to @samp{-inum}.  Add the @samp{-xdev} option if you are
starting the search at a directory that has other filesystems mounted on
it, such as @file{/usr} on many systems.  Doing this saves needless
searching, since hard links to a file must be on the same filesystem.
@xref{Filesystems}.

@deffn Test -inum n
File has inode number @var{n}.  The @samp{+} and @samp{-} qualifiers
also work, though these are rarely useful.
@end deffn

You can also search for files that have a certain number of links, with
@samp{-links}.  Directories normally have at least two hard links; their
@file{.} entry is the second one.  If they have subdirectories, each of
those also has a hard link called @file{..} to its parent directory.

@deffn Test -links n
File has @var{n} hard links.
@end deffn

@deffn Test -links +n
File has more than @var{n} hard links.
@end deffn

@deffn Test -links -n
File has fewer than @var{n} hard links.
@end deffn

@node Time
@section Time

Each file has three time stamps, which record the last time that certain
operations were performed on the file:

@enumerate
@item
access (read the file's contents)
@item
change the status (modify the file or its attributes)
@item
modify (change the file's contents)
@end enumerate

There is no timestamp that indicates when a file was @emph{created}.

You can search for files whose time stamps are within a certain age
range, or compare them to other time stamps.  

@menu
* Age Ranges::
* Comparing Timestamps::
@end menu

@node Age Ranges
@subsection Age Ranges

These tests are mainly useful with ranges (@samp{+@var{n}} and
@samp{-@var{n}}).

@deffn Test -atime n
@deffnx Test -ctime n
@deffnx Test -mtime n
True if the file was last accessed (or its status changed, or it was
modified) @var{n}*24 hours ago.  The number of 24-hour periods since
the file's timestamp is always rounded down; therefore 0 means ``less
than 24 hours ago'', 1 means ``between 24 and 48 hours ago'', and so
forth.
@end deffn

@deffn Test -amin n
@deffnx Test -cmin n
@deffnx Test -mmin n
True if the file was last accessed (or its status changed, or it was
modified) @var{n} minutes ago.  These tests provide finer granularity of
measurement than @samp{-atime} et al., but rounding is done in a 
similar way.  For example, to list files in
@file{/u/bill} that were last read from 2 to 6 minutes ago:

@example
find /u/bill -amin +2 -amin -6
@end example
@end deffn

@deffn Option -daystart
Measure times from the beginning of today rather than from 24 hours ago.
So, to list the regular files in your home directory that were modified
yesterday, do

@example
find ~ -daystart -type f -mtime 1
@end example
@end deffn

The @samp{-daystart} option is unlike most other options in that it
has an effect on the way that other tests are performed.  The affected
tests are @samp{-amin}, @samp{-cmin}, @samp{-mmin}, @samp{-atime},
@samp{-ctime} and @samp{-mtime}.

@node Comparing Timestamps
@subsection Comparing Timestamps

As an alternative to comparing timestamps to the current time, you can
compare them to another file's timestamp.  That file's timestamp could
be updated by another program when some event occurs.  Or you could set
it to a particular fixed date using the @code{touch} command.  For
example, to list files in @file{/usr} modified after February 1 of the
current year:

@c Idea from Rick Sladkey.
@example
touch -t 02010000 /tmp/stamp$$
find /usr -newer /tmp/stamp$$
rm -f /tmp/stamp$$
@end example

@deffn Test -anewer file
@deffnx Test -cnewer file
@deffnx Test -newer file
True if the file was last accessed (or its status changed, or it was
modified) more recently than @var{file} was modified.  These tests are
affected by @samp{-follow} only if @samp{-follow} comes before them on
the command line.  @xref{Symbolic Links}, for more information on
@samp{-follow}.  As an example, to list any files modified since
@file{/bin/sh} was last modified:

@example
find . -newer /bin/sh
@end example
@end deffn

@deffn Test -used n
True if the file was last accessed @var{n} days after its status was
last changed.  Useful for finding files that are not being used, and
could perhaps be archived or removed to save disk space.
@end deffn

@node Size
@section Size

@deffn Test -size n@r{[}bckwMG@r{]}
True if the file uses @var{n} units of space, rounding up.  The units
are 512-byte blocks by default, but they can be changed by adding a
one-character suffix to @var{n}:

@table @code
@item b
512-byte blocks (never 1024)
@item c
bytes
@item k
kilobytes (1024 bytes)
@item w
2-byte words
@item M
Megabytes
@item G
Gigabytes
@end table

The `b' suffix always considers blocks to be 512 bytes.  This is not
affected by the setting (or non-setting) of the POSIXLY_CORRECT
environment variable.  This behaviour is different to the behaviour of
the @samp{-ls} action).  If you want to use 1024-byte units, use the
`k' suffix instead.

The number can be prefixed with a `+' or a `-'.  A plus sign indicates
that the test should succeed if the file uses at least @var{n} units
of storage (this is the way I normally use this test) and a minus sign
indicates that the test should succeed if the file uses less than
@var{n} units of storage.   There is no `=' prefix, because that's the 
default anyway.  

The size does not count indirect blocks, but it does count blocks in
sparse files that are not actually allocated.  This handling of sparse
files differs from the output of the @samp{%k} and @samp{%b} format
specifiers for the @samp{-printf} predicate.

@end deffn

@deffn Test -empty
True if the file is empty and is either a regular file or a directory.
This might make it a good candidate for deletion.  This test is useful
with @samp{-depth} (@pxref{Directories}) and @samp{-delete}
(@pxref{Single File}).
@end deffn

@node Type
@section Type

@deffn Test -type c
True if the file is of type @var{c}:

@table @code
@item b
block (buffered) special
@item c
character (unbuffered) special
@item d
directory
@item p
named pipe (FIFO)
@item f
regular file
@item l
symbolic link
@item s
socket
@item D
door (Solaris)
@end table
@end deffn

@deffn Test -xtype c
The same as @samp{-type} unless the file is a symbolic link.  For
symbolic links: if @samp{-follow} has not been given, true if the file
is a link to a file of type @var{c}; if @samp{-follow} has been given,
true if @var{c} is @samp{l}.  In other words, for symbolic links,
@samp{-xtype} checks the type of the file that @samp{-type} does not
check.  @xref{Symbolic Links}, for more information on @samp{-follow}.
@end deffn

@node Owner
@section Owner

@deffn Test -user uname
@deffnx Test -group gname
True if the file is owned by user @var{uname} (belongs to group @var{gname}).
A numeric ID is allowed.
@end deffn

@deffn Test -uid n
@deffnx Test -gid n
True if the file's numeric user ID (group ID) is @var{n}.  These tests
support ranges (@samp{+@var{n}} and @samp{-@var{n}}), unlike
@samp{-user} and @samp{-group}.
@end deffn

@deffn Test -nouser
@deffnx Test -nogroup
True if no user corresponds to the file's numeric user ID (no group
corresponds to the numeric group ID).  These cases usually mean that the
files belonged to users who have since been removed from the system.
You probably should change the ownership of such files to an existing
user or group, using the @code{chown} or @code{chgrp} program.
@end deffn

@node Permissions
@section Permissions

@xref{File Permissions}, for information on how file permissions are
structured and how to specify them.

@deffn Test -perm mode
True if the
file's permissions are exactly @var{mode} (which can be numeric or symbolic).
Symbolic modes use mode 0 as a point of departure.
If @var{mode} starts with @samp{-}, true if
@emph{all} of the permissions set in @var{mode} are set for the file;
permissions not set in @var{mode} are ignored.
If @var{mode} starts with @samp{+}, true if
@emph{any} of the permissions set in @var{mode} are set for the file;
permissions not set in @var{mode} are ignored.
@end deffn

@node Contents
@section Contents

To search for files based on their contents, you can use the @code{grep}
program.  For example, to find out which C source files in the current
directory contain the string @samp{thing}, you can do:

@example
grep -l thing *.[ch]
@end example

If you also want to search for the string in files in subdirectories,
you can combine @code{grep} with @code{find} and @code{xargs}, like
this:

@example
find . -name '*.[ch]' | xargs grep -l thing
@end example

The @samp{-l} option causes @code{grep} to print only the names of files
that contain the string, rather than the lines that contain it.  The
string argument (@samp{thing}) is actually a regular expression, so it
can contain metacharacters.  This method can be refined a little by
using the @samp{-r} option to make @code{xargs} not run @code{grep} if
@code{find} produces no output, and using the @code{find} action
@samp{-print0} and the @code{xargs} option @samp{-0} to avoid
misinterpreting files whose names contain spaces:

@example
find . -name '*.[ch]' -print0 | xargs -r -0 grep -l thing
@end example

For a fuller treatment of finding files whose contents match a pattern,
see the manual page for @code{grep}.

@node Directories
@section Directories

Here is how to control which directories @code{find} searches, and how
it searches them.  These two options allow you to process a horizontal
slice of a directory tree.

@deffn Option -maxdepth levels
Descend at most @var{levels} (a non-negative integer) levels of
directories below the command line arguments.  @samp{-maxdepth 0} means
only apply the tests and actions to the command line arguments.
@end deffn

@deffn Option -mindepth levels
Do not apply any tests or actions at levels less than @var{levels} (a
non-negative integer).  @samp{-mindepth 1} means process all files
except the command line arguments.
@end deffn

@deffn Option -depth
Process each directory's contents before the directory itself.  Doing
this is a good idea when producing lists of files to archive with
@code{cpio} or @code{tar}.  If a directory does not have write
permission for its owner, its contents can still be restored from the
archive since the directory's permissions are restored after its contents.
@end deffn

@deffn Option -d
This is a deprecated synonym for @samp{-depth}, for compatibility with
Mac OS X, FreeBSD and OpenBSD.   The @samp{-depth} option is a POSIX
feature, so it is better to use that.
@end deffn

@deffn Action -prune
If the file is a directory, do not descend into it.  The result is
true.  For example, to skip the directory @file{src/emacs} and all
files and directories under it, and print the names of the other files
found:

@example
find . -wholename './src/emacs' -prune -o -print
@end example

The above command will not print @file{./src/emacs} among its list of
results.  This however is not due to the effect of the @samp{-prune}
action (which only prevents further descent, it doesn't make sure we
ignore that item).  Instead, this effect is due to the use of
@samp{-o}.  Since the left hand side of the ``or'' condition has
succeeded for @file{./src/emacs}, it is not necessary to evaluate the
right-hand-side (@samp{-print}) at all for this particular file.  If
you wanted to print that directory name you could use either an extra
@samp{-print} action:

@example
find . -wholename './src/emacs' -prune -print -o -print
@end example

or use the comma operator:

@example
find . -wholename './src/emacs' -prune , -print
@end example

If the @samp{-depth} option is in effect, the subdirectories will have
already been visited in any case.  Hence @samp{-prune} has no effect
and returns false.
@end deffn


@deffn Action -quit
Exit immediately with return value zero.  No child processes will be
left running, but no more paths specified on the command line will be 
processed.   For example, @code{find /tmp/foo /tmp/bar -print -quit}
will print only @samp{/tmp/foo}.
@end deffn 

@deffn Option -noleaf
Do not optimize by assuming that directories contain 2 fewer
subdirectories than their hard link count.  This option is needed when
searching filesystems that do not follow the Unix directory-link
convention, such as CD-ROM or MS-DOS filesystems or AFS volume mount
points.  Each directory on a normal Unix filesystem has at least 2 hard
links: its name and its @file{.}  entry.  Additionally, its
subdirectories (if any) each have a @file{..}  entry linked to that
directory.  When @code{find} is examining a directory, after it has
statted 2 fewer subdirectories than the directory's link count, it knows
that the rest of the entries in the directory are non-directories
(@dfn{leaf} files in the directory tree).  If only the files' names need
to be examined, there is no need to stat them; this gives a significant
increase in search speed.
@end deffn

@deffn Option -ignore_readdir_race
If a file disappears after its name has been read from a directory but
before @code{find} gets around to examining the file with @code{stat},
don't issue an error message.  If you don't specify this option, an
error message will be issued.  This option can be useful in system
scripts (cron scripts, for example) that examine areas of the
filesystem that change frequently (mail queues, temporary directories,
and so forth), because this scenario is common for those sorts of
directories.  Completely silencing error messages from @code{find} is
undesirable, so this option neatly solves the problem.  There is no
way to search one part of the filesystem with this option on and part
of it with this option off, though.
@end deffn

@deffn Option -noignore_readdir_race
This option reverses the effect of the @samp{-ignore_readdir_race} option.
@end deffn


@node Filesystems
@section Filesystems

A @dfn{filesystem} is a section of a disk, either on the local host or
mounted from a remote host over a network.  Searching network
filesystems can be slow, so it is common to make @code{find} avoid them.

There are two ways to avoid searching certain filesystems.  One way is
to tell @code{find} to only search one filesystem:

@deffn Option -xdev
@deffnx Option -mount
Don't descend directories on other filesystems.  These options are synonyms.
@end deffn

The other way is to check the type of filesystem each file is on, and
not descend directories that are on undesirable filesystem types:

@deffn Test -fstype type
True if the file is on a filesystem of type @var{type}.  The valid
filesystem types vary among different versions of Unix; an incomplete
list of filesystem types that are accepted on some version of Unix or
another is:
@example
ext2 ext3 proc sysfs ufs 4.2 4.3 nfs tmp mfs S51K S52K
@end example
You can use @samp{-printf} with the @samp{%F} directive to see the types
of your filesystems.  The @samp{%D} directive shows the device number.
@xref{Print File Information}.  @samp{-fstype} is
usually used with @samp{-prune} to avoid searching remote filesystems
(@pxref{Directories}). 
@end deffn

@node Combining Primaries With Operators
@section Combining Primaries With Operators

Operators build a complex expression from tests and actions.
The operators are, in order of decreasing precedence:

@table @code
@item @asis{( @var{expr} )}
@findex ()
Force precedence.  True if @var{expr} is true.

@item @asis{! @var{expr}}
@itemx @asis{-not @var{expr}}
@findex !
@findex -not
True if @var{expr} is false.

@item @asis{@var{expr1 expr2}}
@itemx @asis{@var{expr1} -a @var{expr2}}
@itemx @asis{@var{expr1} -and @var{expr2}}
@findex -a
@findex -and
And; @var{expr2} is not evaluated if @var{expr1} is false.

@item @asis{@var{expr1} -o @var{expr2}}
@itemx @asis{@var{expr1} -or @var{expr2}}
@findex -o
@findex -or
Or; @var{expr2} is not evaluated if @var{expr1} is true.

@item @asis{@var{expr1} , @var{expr2}}
@findex ,
List; both @var{expr1} and @var{expr2} are always evaluated.  True if
@var{expr2} is true.  The value of @var{expr1} is discarded.  This
operator lets you do multiple independent operations on one traversal,
without depending on whether other operations succeeded.  The two 
operations @var{expr1} and @var{expr2} are not always filly
independent, since @var{expr1} might have side effects like touching
or deleting files, or it might use @samp{-prune} which would also
affect @var{expr2}.
@end table

@code{find} searches the directory tree rooted at each file name by
evaluating the expression from left to right, according to the rules of
precedence, until the outcome is known (the left hand side is false for
@samp{-and}, true for @samp{-or}), at which point @code{find} moves on
to the next file name.

There are two other tests that can be useful in complex expressions:

@deffn Test -true
Always true.
@end deffn

@deffn Test -false
Always false.
@end deffn

@node Actions, Common Tasks, Finding Files, Top
@chapter Actions

There are several ways you can print information about the files that
match the criteria you gave in the @code{find} expression.  You can
print the information either to the standard output or to a file that
you name.  You can also execute commands that have the file names as
arguments.  You can use those commands as further filters to select files.

@menu
* Print File Name::
* Print File Information::
* Run Commands::
* Delete Files::
* Adding Tests::
@end menu

@node Print File Name
@section Print File Name

@deffn Action -print
True; print the full file name on the standard output, followed by a
newline.
@end deffn

@deffn Action -fprint file
True; print the full file name into file @var{file}, followed by a
newline.  If @var{file} does not exist when @code{find} is run, it is
created; if it does exist, it is truncated to 0 bytes.  The file names
@file{/dev/stdout} and @file{/dev/stderr} are handled specially; they
refer to the standard output and standard error output, respectively.
@end deffn

@node Print File Information
@section Print File Information

@deffn Action -ls
True; list the current file in @samp{ls -dils} format on the standard
output.  The output looks like this:

@smallexample
204744   17 -rw-r--r--   1 djm      staff       17337 Nov  2  1992 ./lwall-quotes
@end smallexample

The fields are:

@enumerate
@item
The inode number of the file.  @xref{Hard Links}, for how to find files
based on their inode number.

@item
the number of blocks in the file.  The block counts are of 1K blocks,
unless the environment variable @code{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is set, in which
case 512-byte blocks are used.  @xref{Size}, for how to find files based
on their size.

@item
The file's type and permissions.  The type is shown as a dash for a
regular file; for other file types, a letter like for @samp{-type} is
used (@pxref{Type}).  The permissions are read, write, and execute for
the file's owner, its group, and other users, respectively; a dash means
the permission is not granted.  @xref{File Permissions}, for more details
about file permissions.  @xref{Permissions}, for how to find files based
on their permissions.

@item
The number of hard links to the file.

@item
The user who owns the file.

@item
The file's group.

@item
The file's size in bytes.

@item
The date the file was last modified.

@item
The file's name.  @samp{-ls} quotes non-printable characters in the file
names using C-like backslash escapes.
@end enumerate
@end deffn

@deffn Action -fls file
True; like @samp{-ls} but write to @var{file} like @samp{-fprint}
(@pxref{Print File Name}).
@end deffn

@deffn Action -printf format
True; print @var{format} on the standard output, interpreting @samp{\}
escapes and @samp{%} directives.  Field widths and precisions can be
specified as with the @code{printf} C function.  Format flags (like
@samp{#} for example) may not work as you expect because many of the
fields, even numeric ones, are printed with %s.  This means though
that the format flag @samp{-} will work; it forces left-alignment of
the field.  Unlike @samp{-print}, @samp{-printf} does not add a
newline at the end of the string.  If you want a newline at the end of
the string, add a @samp{\n}.
@end deffn

@deffn Action -fprintf file format
True; like @samp{-printf} but write to @var{file} like @samp{-fprint}
(@pxref{Print File Name}).
@end deffn

@menu
* Escapes::
* Format Directives::
* Time Formats::
@end menu

@node Escapes
@subsection Escapes

The escapes that @samp{-printf} and @samp{-fprintf} recognize are:

@table @code
@item \a
Alarm bell.
@item \b
Backspace.
@item \c
Stop printing from this format immediately and flush the output.
@item \f
Form feed.
@item \n
Newline.
@item \r
Carriage return.
@item \t
Horizontal tab.
@item \v
Vertical tab.
@item \\
A literal backslash (@samp{\}).
@item \NNN
The character whose ASCII code is NNN (octal).
@end table

A @samp{\} character followed by any other character is treated as an
ordinary character, so they both are printed, and a warning message is
printed to the standard error output (because it was probably a typo).

@node Format Directives
@subsection Format Directives

@samp{-printf} and @samp{-fprintf} support the following format
directives to print information about the file being processed.  The C
@code{printf} function, field width and precision specifiers are
supported, as applied to string (%s) types. That is, you can specify
"minimum field width"."maximum field width" for each directive.
Format flags (like @samp{#} for example) may not work as you expect
because many of the fields, even numeric ones, are printed with %s.
The format flag @samp{-} does work; it forces left-alignment of the
field.

@samp{%%} is a literal percent sign.  A @samp{%} character followed by
an unrecognised character (i.e. not a known directive or printf field
width and precision specifier), is discarded (but the unrecognised character
is printed), and a warning message is printed to the standard error output
(because it was probably a typo).

@menu
* Name Directives::
* Ownership Directives::
* Size Directives::
* Location Directives::
* Time Directives::
* Formatting Flags::
@end menu

@node Name Directives
@subsubsection Name Directives

@table @code
@item %p
@c supports %-X.Yp
File's name (not the absolute path name, but the name of the file as
it was encountered by find - that is, as a relative path from one of
the starting points).
@item %f
File's name with any leading directories removed (only the last element).
@c supports %-X.Yf
@item %h
Leading directories of file's name (all but the last element and the
slash before it).
@c supports %-X.Yh
@item %P
File's name with the name of the command line argument under which
it was found removed from the beginning.
@c supports %-X.YP
@item %H
Command line argument under which file was found.
@c supports %-X.YH
@end table

@node Ownership Directives
@subsubsection Ownership Directives

@table @code
@item %g
@c supports %-X.Yg
File's group name, or numeric group ID if the group has no name.
@item %G
@c supports %-X.Yg
@c TODO: Needs to support # flag and 0 flag
File's numeric group ID.
@item %u
@c supports %-X.Yu
File's user name, or numeric user ID if the user has no name.
@item %U
@c supports %-X.Yu
@c TODO: Needs to support # flag
File's numeric user ID.
@item %m
@c full support, including # and 0.
File's permissions (in octal).   If you always want to have a leading
zero on the number, use the '#' format flag, for example '%#m'.
@end table

@node Size Directives
@subsubsection Size Directives

@table @code
@item %k
Amount of disk space occupied by the file, measured in 1K blocks
(rounded up).  This can be less than the length of the file if 
it is a sparse file (that is, it has ``holes'').  
@item %b
File's size in 512-byte blocks (rounded up).  This also can be less 
than the length of the file, if the file is sparse.
@item %s
File's size in bytes.
@end table

@node Location Directives
@subsubsection Location Directives

@table @code
@item %d
File's depth in the directory tree (depth below a file named on the
command line, not depth below the root directory).  Files named on the
command line have a depth of 0.  Subdirectories immediately below them
have a depth of 1, and so on.
@item %D
The device number on which the file exists (the @code{st_dev} field of
@code{struct stat}), in decimal.
@item %F
Type of the filesystem the file is on; this value can be used for
@samp{-fstype} (@pxref{Directories}).
@item %l
Object of symbolic link (empty string if file is not a symbolic link).
@item %i
File's inode number (in decimal).
@item %n
Number of hard links to file.
@item %y 
Type of the file as used with @samp{-type}.   If the file is a symbolic
link, @samp{l} will be printed.
@item %Y
Type of the file as used with @samp{-type}.   If the file is a symbolic
link, it is dereferenced.  If the file is a broken symbolic link,
@samp{N} is printed.

@end table

@node Time Directives
@subsubsection Time Directives

Some of these directives use the C @code{ctime} function.  Its output
depends on the current locale, but it typically looks like

@example
Wed Nov  2 00:42:36 1994
@end example

@table @code
@item %a
File's last access time in the format returned by the C @code{ctime} function.
@item %A@var{k}
File's last access time in the format specified by @var{k}
(@pxref{Time Formats}). 
@item %c
File's last status change time in the format returned by the C @code{ctime}
function.
@item %C@var{k}
File's last status change time in the format specified by @var{k}
(@pxref{Time Formats}).
@item %t
File's last modification time in the format returned by the C @code{ctime}
function.
@item %T@var{k}
File's last modification time in the format specified by @var{k} 
(@pxref{Time Formats}). 
@end table

@node Time Formats
@subsection Time Formats

Below are the formats for the directives @samp{%A}, @samp{%C}, and
@samp{%T}, which print the file's timestamps.  Some of these formats
might not be available on all systems, due to differences in the C
@code{strftime} function between systems.

@menu
* Time Components::
* Date Components::
* Combined Time Formats::
@end menu

@node Time Components
@subsubsection Time Components

The following format directives print single components of the time.

@table @code
@item H
hour (00..23)
@item I
hour (01..12)
@item k
hour ( 0..23)
@item l
hour ( 1..12)
@item p
locale's AM or PM
@item Z
time zone (e.g., EDT), or nothing if no time zone is determinable
@item M
minute (00..59)
@item S
second (00..61)
@item @@
seconds since Jan. 1, 1970, 00:00 GMT.
@end table

@node Date Components
@subsubsection Date Components

The following format directives print single components of the date.

@table @code
@item a
locale's abbreviated weekday name (Sun..Sat)
@item A
locale's full weekday name, variable length (Sunday..Saturday)
@item b
@itemx h
locale's abbreviated month name (Jan..Dec)
@item B
locale's full month name, variable length (January..December)
@item m
month (01..12)
@item d
day of month (01..31)
@item w
day of week (0..6)
@item j
day of year (001..366)
@item U
week number of year with Sunday as first day of week (00..53)
@item W
week number of year with Monday as first day of week (00..53)
@item Y
year (1970@dots{})
@item y
last two digits of year (00..99)
@end table

@node Combined Time Formats
@subsubsection Combined Time Formats

The following format directives print combinations of time and date
components. 

@table @code
@item r
time, 12-hour (hh:mm:ss [AP]M)
@item T
time, 24-hour (hh:mm:ss)
@item X
locale's time representation (H:M:S)
@item c
locale's date and time (Sat Nov 04 12:02:33 EST 1989)
@item D
date (mm/dd/yy)
@item x
locale's date representation (mm/dd/yy)
@item +
Date and time, separated by '+', for example `2004-04-28+22:22:05'.
The time is given in the current timezone (which may be affected by
setting the TZ environment variable).  This is a GNU extension.
@end table

@node Formatting Flags
@subsubsection Formatting Flags

The @samp{%m} and @samp{%d} directives support the @samp{#}, @samp{0}
and @samp{+} flags, but the other directives do not, even if they
print numbers.  Numeric directives that do not support these flags
include 

@samp{G},
@samp{U},
@samp{b},
@samp{D},
@samp{k} and
@samp{n}.

All fields support the format flag @samp{-}, which makes fields
left-aligned.  That is, if the field width is greater than the actual
contents of the field, the requisite number of spaces are printed
after the field content instead of before it.

@node Run Commands
@section Run Commands

You can use the list of file names created by @code{find} or
@code{locate} as arguments to other commands.  In this way you can
perform arbitrary actions on the files.

@menu
* Single File::
* Multiple Files::
* Querying::
@end menu

@node Single File
@subsection Single File

Here is how to run a command on one file at a time.

@deffn Action -exec command ;
Execute @var{command}; true if 0 status is returned.  @code{find} takes
all arguments after @samp{-exec} to be part of the command until an
argument consisting of @samp{;} is reached.  It replaces the string
@samp{@{@}} by the current file name being processed everywhere it
occurs in the command.  Both of these constructions need to be escaped
(with a @samp{\}) or quoted to protect them from expansion by the shell.
The command is executed in the directory in which @code{find} was run.

For example, to compare each C header file in the current directory with
the file @file{/tmp/master}:

@example
find . -name '*.h' -exec diff -u '@{@}' /tmp/master ';'
@end example
@end deffn


@deffn Action -exec command +
This variant of @samp{-exec} not yet supported.   Once it has been
implemented as specified in the POSIX standard, a @samp{@{@}} will expand to
a list of names of matching files.  This expansion is done in such a
way as to avoid exceeding the maximum command line length available on 
the system.
@end deffn


@node Multiple Files
@subsection Multiple Files

Sometimes you need to process files alone.  But when you
don't, it is faster to run a command on as many files as possible at a
time, rather than once per file.  Doing this saves on the time it takes
to start up the command each time.

To run a command on more than one file at once, use the @code{xargs}
command, which is invoked like this:

@example
xargs @r{[}@var{option}@dots{}@r{]} @r{[}@var{command} @r{[}@var{initial-arguments}@r{]}@r{]}
@end example

@code{xargs} normally reads arguments from the standard input.  These
arguments are delimited by blanks (which can be protected with double
or single quotes or a backslash) or newlines.  It executes the
@var{command} (default is @file{/bin/echo}) one or more times with any
@var{initial-arguments} followed by arguments read from standard
input.  Blank lines on the standard input are ignored.

Instead of blank-delimited names, it is safer to use @samp{find -print0}
or @samp{find -fprint0} and process the output by giving the @samp{-0}
or @samp{--null} option to GNU @code{xargs}, GNU @code{tar}, GNU
@code{cpio}, or @code{perl}.  The @code{locate} command also has a
@samp{-0} or @samp{--null} option which does the same thing.

You can use shell command substitution (backquotes) to process a list of
arguments, like this:

@example
grep -l sprintf `find $HOME -name '*.c' -print`
@end example

However, that method produces an error if the length of the @samp{.c}
file names exceeds the operating system's command-line length limit.
@code{xargs} avoids that problem by running the command as many times as
necessary without exceeding the limit:

@example
find $HOME -name '*.c' -print | xargs grep -l sprintf
@end example

However, if the command needs to have its standard input be a terminal
(@code{less}, for example), you have to use the shell command
substitution method or use the @samp{--arg-file} option of
@code{xargs}.

The @code{xargs} command will process all its input, building command
lines and executing them, unless one of the commands exits with a
status of 255 (this will cause xargs to issue an error message and
stop) or it reads a line contains the end of file string specified
with the @samp{--eof} option. 

@menu
* Unsafe File Name Handling::
* Safe File Name Handling::
* Limiting Command Size::
* Interspersing File Names::
@end menu

@node Unsafe File Name Handling
@subsubsection Unsafe File Name Handling

Because file names can contain quotes, backslashes, blank characters,
and even newlines, it is not safe to process them using @code{xargs} in its
default mode of operation.  But since most files' names do not contain
blanks, this problem occurs only infrequently.  If you are only
searching through files that you know have safe names, then you need not
be concerned about it.  

@c This example is adapted from:
@c From: pfalstad@stone.Princeton.EDU (Paul John Falstad)
@c Newsgroups: comp.unix.shell
@c Subject: Re: Beware xargs security holes
@c Date: 16 Oct 90 19:12:06 GMT
@c 
In many applications, if @code{xargs} botches processing a file because
its name contains special characters, some data might be lost.  The
importance of this problem depends on the importance of the data and
whether anyone notices the loss soon enough to correct it.  However,
here is an extreme example of the problems that using blank-delimited
names can cause.  If the following command is run daily from
@code{cron}, then any user can remove any file on the system:

@example
find / -name '#*' -atime +7 -print | xargs rm
@end example

For example, you could do something like this:

@example
eg$ echo > '#
vmunix'
@end example

@noindent
and then @code{cron} would delete @file{/vmunix}, if it ran
@code{xargs} with @file{/} as its current directory.

To delete other files, for example @file{/u/joeuser/.plan}, you could do
this:

@example
eg$ mkdir '#
'
eg$ cd '#
'
eg$ mkdir u u/joeuser u/joeuser/.plan'
'
eg$ echo > u/joeuser/.plan'
/#foo'
eg$ cd ..
eg$ find . -name '#*' -print | xargs echo
./# ./# /u/joeuser/.plan /#foo
@end example

@node Safe File Name Handling
@subsubsection Safe File Name Handling

Here is how to make @code{find} output file names so that they can be
used by other programs without being mangled or misinterpreted.  You can
process file names generated this way by giving the @samp{-0} or
@samp{--null} option to GNU @code{xargs}, GNU @code{tar}, GNU
@code{cpio}, or @code{perl}.

@deffn Action -print0
True; print the full file name on the standard output, followed by a
null character.
@end deffn

@deffn Action -fprint0 file
True; like @samp{-print0} but write to @var{file} like @samp{-fprint}
(@pxref{Print File Name}).
@end deffn

As of findutils version 4.2.4, the @code{locate} program also has a
@samp{--null} option which does the same thing.  For similarity with
@code{xargs}, the short form of the option @samp{-0} can also be used.

If you want to be able to handle file names safely but need to run
commands which want to be connected to a terminal on their input, you
can use the @samp{--arg-file} option to @code{xargs} like this:

@example
find / -name xyzzy -print0 > list
xargs --null --arg-file=list munge
@end example

The example above runs the @code{munge} program on all the files named
@file{xyzzy} that we can find, but @code{munge}'s input will still be
the terminal (or whatever the shell was using as standard input).  If
your shell has the ``process substitution'' feature @samp{<(...)}, you
can do this in just one step:

@example
xargs --null --arg-file=<(find / -name xyzzy -print0) munge
@end example

@node Limiting Command Size
@subsubsection Limiting Command Size

@code{xargs} gives you control over how many arguments it passes to the
command each time it executes it.  By default, it uses up to
@code{ARG_MAX} - 2k, or 128k, whichever is smaller, characters per
command.  It uses as many lines and arguments as fit within that limit.
The following options modify those values.

@table @code
@item --no-run-if-empty
@itemx -r
If the standard input does not contain any nonblanks, do not run the
command.  By default, the command is run once even if there is no input.

@item --max-lines@r{[}=@var{max-lines}@r{]}
@itemx -l@r{[}@var{max-lines}@r{]}
Use at most @var{max-lines} nonblank input lines per command line;
@var{max-lines} defaults to 1 if omitted.  Trailing blanks cause an
input line to be logically continued on the next input line, for the
purpose of counting the lines.  Implies @samp{-x}.

@item --max-args=@var{max-args}
@itemx -n @var{max-args}
Use at most @var{max-args} arguments per command line.  Fewer than
@var{max-args} arguments will be used if the size (see the @samp{-s}
option) is exceeded, unless the @samp{-x} option is given, in which case
@code{xargs} will exit.

@item --max-chars=@var{max-chars}
@itemx -s @var{max-chars}
Use at most @var{max-chars} characters per command line, including the
command and initial arguments and the terminating nulls at the ends of
the argument strings.  If you specify a value for this option which is
too large or small, a warning message is printed and the appropriate
upper or lower limit is used instead.

@item --max-procs=@var{max-procs}
@itemx -P @var{max-procs}
Run up to @var{max-procs} processes at a time; the default is 1.  If
@var{max-procs} is 0, @code{xargs} will run as many processes as
possible at a time.  Use the @samp{-n}, @samp{-s}, or @samp{-l} option
with @samp{-P}; otherwise chances are that the command will be run only
once.
@end table

@node Interspersing File Names
@subsubsection Interspersing File Names

@code{xargs} can insert the name of the file it is processing between
arguments you give for the command.  Unless you also give options to
limit the command size (@pxref{Limiting Command Size}), this mode of
operation is equivalent to @samp{find -exec} (@pxref{Single File}).

@table @code
@item --replace@r{[}=@var{replace-str}@r{]}
@itemx -i@r{[}@var{replace-str}@r{]}
Replace occurrences of @var{replace-str} in the initial arguments with
names read from the input.  Also, unquoted blanks do not
terminate arguments; instead, the input is split at newlines only.  If
@var{replace-str} is omitted, it defaults to @samp{@{@}} (like for
@samp{find -exec}).  Implies @samp{-x} and @samp{-l 1}.  As an
example, to sort each file the @file{bills} directory, leaving the
output in that file name with @file{.sorted} appended, you could do:

@example
find bills -type f | xargs -iXX sort -o XX.sorted XX
@end example

@noindent
The equivalent command using @samp{find -exec} is:

@example
find bills -type f -exec sort -o '@{@}.sorted' '@{@}' ';'
@end example
@end table

@node Querying
@subsection Querying

To ask the user whether to execute a command on a single file, you can
use the @code{find} primary @samp{-ok} instead of @samp{-exec}:

@deffn Action -ok command ;
Like @samp{-exec} (@pxref{Single File}), but ask the user first (on
the standard input); if the response does not start with @samp{y} or
@samp{Y}, do not run the command, and return false.
@end deffn

When processing multiple files with a single command, to query the user
you give @code{xargs} the following option.  When using this option, you
might find it useful to control the number of files processed per
invocation of the command (@pxref{Limiting Command Size}).

@table @code
@item --interactive
@itemx -p
Prompt the user about whether to run each command line and read a line
from the terminal.  Only run the command line if the response starts
with @samp{y} or @samp{Y}.  Implies @samp{-t}.
@end table

@node Delete Files
@section Delete Files

@deffn Action -delete
Delete files or directories; true if removal succeeded.  If the
removal failed, an error message is issued.

The use of the @samp{-delete} action on the command line automatically
turns on the @samp{-depth} option (@pxref{find Expressions}).
@end deffn

@node Adding Tests
@section Adding Tests

You can test for file attributes that none of the @code{find} builtin
tests check.  To do this, use @code{xargs} to run a program that filters
a list of files printed by @code{find}.  If possible, use @code{find}
builtin tests to pare down the list, so the program run by @code{xargs}
has less work to do.  The tests builtin to @code{find} will likely run
faster than tests that other programs perform.

For example, here is a way to print the names of all of the unstripped
binaries in the @file{/usr/local} directory tree.  Builtin tests avoid
running @code{file} on files that are not regular files or are not
executable.

@example
find /usr/local -type f -perm +a=x | xargs file | 
  grep 'not stripped' | cut -d: -f1
@end example

@noindent
The @code{cut} program removes everything after the file name from the
output of @code{file}.

@c Idea from Martin Weitzel.
If you want to place a special test somewhere in the middle of a
@code{find} expression, you can use @samp{-exec} to run a program that
performs the test.  Because @samp{-exec} evaluates to the exit status of
the executed program, you can write a program (which can be a shell
script) that tests for a special attribute and make it exit with a true
(zero) or false (non-zero) status.  It is a good idea to place such a
special test @emph{after} the builtin tests, because it starts a new
process which could be avoided if a builtin test evaluates to false.
Use this method only when @code{xargs} is not flexible enough, because
starting one or more new processes to test each file is slower than
using @code{xargs} to start one process that tests many files.

Here is a shell script called @code{unstripped} that checks whether its
argument is an unstripped binary file:

@example
#! /bin/sh
file $1 | grep 'not stripped' > /dev/null
@end example

This script relies on the fact that the shell exits with the status of
the last program it executed, in this case @code{grep}.  @code{grep}
exits with a true status if it found any matches, false if not.  Here is
an example of using the script (assuming it is in your search path).  It
lists the stripped executables in the file @file{sbins} and the
unstripped ones in @file{ubins}.

@example
find /usr/local -type f -perm +a=x \
  \( -exec unstripped '@{@}' \; -fprint ubins -o -fprint sbins \)
@end example

@node Common Tasks, Databases, Actions, Top
@chapter Common Tasks

The sections that follow contain some extended examples that both give a
good idea of the power of these programs, and show you how to solve
common real-world problems.

@menu
* Viewing And Editing::
* Archiving::
* Cleaning Up::
* Strange File Names::
* Fixing Permissions::
* Classifying Files::
@end menu

@node Viewing And Editing
@section Viewing And Editing

To view a list of files that meet certain criteria, simply run your file
viewing program with the file names as arguments.  Shells substitute a
command enclosed in backquotes with its output, so the whole command
looks like this:

@example
less `find /usr/include -name '*.h' | xargs grep -l mode_t`
@end example

@noindent
You can edit those files by giving an editor name instead of a file
viewing program:

@example
emacs `find /usr/include -name '*.h' | xargs grep -l mode_t`
@end example

Because there is a limit to the length of any individual command line,
there is a limit to the number of files that can be handled in this
way.  We can get around this difficulty by using xargs like this:

@example
find /usr/include -name '*.h' | xargs grep -l mode_t > todo
xargs --arg-file=todo emacs
@end example

Here, @code{xargs} will run @code{emacs} as many times as necessary to
visit all of the files listed in the file @file{todo}.

@node Archiving
@section Archiving

You can pass a list of files produced by @code{find} to a file archiving
program.  GNU @code{tar} and @code{cpio} can both read lists of file
names from the standard input---either delimited by nulls (the safe way)
or by blanks (the lazy, risky default way).  To use null-delimited
names, give them the @samp{--null} option.  You can store a file archive
in a file, write it on a tape, or send it over a network to extract on
another machine.

One common use of @code{find} to archive files is to send a list of the
files in a directory tree to @code{cpio}.  Use @samp{-depth} so if a
directory does not have write permission for its owner, its contents can
still be restored from the archive since the directory's permissions are
restored after its contents.  Here is an example of doing this using
@code{cpio}; you could use a more complex @code{find} expression to
archive only certain files.

@example
find . -depth -print0 |
  cpio --create --null --format=crc --file=/dev/nrst0
@end example

You could restore that archive using this command:

@example
cpio --extract --null --make-dir --unconditional \
  --preserve --file=/dev/nrst0
@end example

Here are the commands to do the same things using @code{tar}:

@example
find . -depth -print0 |
  tar --create --null --files-from=- --file=/dev/nrst0

tar --extract --null --preserve-perm --same-owner \
  --file=/dev/nrst0
@end example

@c Idea from Rick Sladkey.
Here is an example of copying a directory from one machine to another:

@example
find . -depth -print0 | cpio -0o -Hnewc |
  rsh @var{other-machine} "cd `pwd` && cpio -i0dum"
@end example

@node Cleaning Up
@section Cleaning Up

@c Idea from Jim Meyering.
This section gives examples of removing unwanted files in various situations.
Here is a command to remove the CVS backup files created when an update
requires a merge:

@example
find . -name '.#*' -print0 | xargs -0r rm -f
@end example

The command above works, but the following is safer:

@example
find . -name '.#*' -depth -delete
@end example

@c Idea from Franc,ois Pinard.
You can run this command to clean out your clutter in @file{/tmp}.  You
might place it in the file your shell runs when you log out
(@file{.bash_logout}, @file{.logout}, or @file{.zlogout}, depending on
which shell you use).

@example
find /tmp -depth -user "$LOGNAME" -type f -delete 
@end example

If your @code{find} command removes directories, you may find that 
you get a spurious error message when @code{find} tries to recurse
into a directory that has now been removed.  Using the @samp{-depth}
option will normally resolve this problem.

@c Idea from Noah Friedman.
To remove old Emacs backup and auto-save files, you can use a command
like the following.  It is especially important in this case to use
null-terminated file names because Emacs packages like the VM mailer
often create temporary file names with spaces in them, like @file{#reply
to David J. MacKenzie<1>#}.

@example
find ~ \( -name '*~' -o -name '#*#' \) -print0 |
  xargs --no-run-if-empty --null rm -vf
@end example

Removing old files from @file{/tmp} is commonly done from @code{cron}:

@c Idea from Kaveh Ghazi.
@example
find /tmp /var/tmp -not -type d -mtime +3 -delete
find /tmp /var/tmp -depth -mindepth 1 -type d -empty -delete
@end example

The second @code{find} command above uses @samp{-depth} so it cleans out
empty directories depth-first, hoping that the parents become empty and
can be removed too.  It uses @samp{-mindepth} to avoid removing
@file{/tmp} itself if it becomes totally empty.

@node Strange File Names
@section Strange File Names

@c Idea from:
@c From: tmatimar@isgtec.com (Ted Timar)
@c Newsgroups: comp.unix.questions,comp.unix.shell,comp.answers,news.answers
@c Subject: Unix - Frequently Asked Questions (2/7) [Frequent posting]
@c Subject: How do I remove a file with funny characters in the filename ?
@c Date: Thu Mar 18 17:16:55 EST 1993
@code{find} can help you remove or rename a file with strange characters
in its name.  People are sometimes stymied by files whose names contain
characters such as spaces, tabs, control characters, or characters with
the high bit set.  The simplest way to remove such files is:

@example
rm -i @var{some*pattern*that*matches*the*problem*file}
@end example

@code{rm} asks you whether to remove each file matching the given
pattern.  If you are using an old shell, this approach might not work if
the file name contains a character with the high bit set; the shell may
strip it off.  A more reliable way is:

@example
find . -maxdepth 1 @var{tests} -ok rm '@{@}' \;
@end example

@noindent
where @var{tests} uniquely identify the file.  The @samp{-maxdepth 1}
option prevents @code{find} from wasting time searching for the file in
any subdirectories; if there are no subdirectories, you may omit it.  A
good way to uniquely identify the problem file is to figure out its
inode number; use

@example
ls -i
@end example

Suppose you have a file whose name contains control characters, and you
have found that its inode number is 12345.  This command prompts you for
whether to remove it:

@example
find . -maxdepth 1 -inum 12345 -ok rm -f '@{@}' \;
@end example

If you don't want to be asked, perhaps because the file name may contain
a strange character sequence that will mess up your screen when printed,
then use @samp{-exec} instead of @samp{-ok}.

If you want to rename the file instead, you can use @code{mv} instead of
@code{rm}:

@example
find . -maxdepth 1 -inum 12345 -ok mv '@{@}' @var{new-file-name} \;
@end example

@node Fixing Permissions
@section Fixing Permissions

Suppose you want to make sure that everyone can write to the directories in a
certain directory tree.  Here is a way to find directories lacking either
user or group write permission (or both), and fix their permissions:

@example
find . -type d -not -perm -ug=w | xargs chmod ug+w
@end example

@noindent
You could also reverse the operations, if you want to make sure that
directories do @emph{not} have world write permission.

@node Classifying Files
@section Classifying Files

@c Idea from:
@c From: martin@mwtech.UUCP (Martin Weitzel)
@c Newsgroups: comp.unix.wizards,comp.unix.questions
@c Subject: Advanced usage of 'find' (Re: Unix security automating script)
@c Date: 22 Mar 90 15:05:19 GMT
If you want to classify a set of files into several groups based on
different criteria, you can use the comma operator to perform multiple
independent tests on the files.  Here is an example:

@example
find / -type d \( -perm -o=w -fprint allwrite , \
  -perm -o=x -fprint allexec \)

echo "Directories that can be written to by everyone:"
cat allwrite
echo ""
echo "Directories with search permissions for everyone:"
cat allexec
@end example

@code{find} has only to make one scan through the directory tree (which
is one of the most time consuming parts of its work).

@node Databases, File Permissions, Common Tasks, Top
@chapter File Name Databases

The file name databases used by @code{locate} contain lists of files
that were in particular directory trees when the databases were last
updated.  The file name of the default database is determined when
@code{locate} and @code{updatedb} are configured and installed.  The
frequency with which the databases are updated and the directories for
which they contain entries depend on how often @code{updatedb} is run,
and with which arguments.

You can obtain some statistics about the databases by using
@samp{locate --statistics}.

@menu
* Database Locations::
* Database Formats::
* Newline Handling::
@end menu


@node Database Locations
@section Database Locations

There can be multiple file name databases.  Users can select which
databases @code{locate} searches using the @code{LOCATE_PATH}
environment variable or a command line option.  The system
administrator can choose the file name of the default database, the
frequency with which the databases are updated, and the directories
for which they contain entries.  File name databases are updated by
running the @code{updatedb} program, typically nightly.

In networked environments, it often makes sense to build a database at
the root of each filesystem, containing the entries for that filesystem.
@code{updatedb} is then run for each filesystem on the fileserver where
that filesystem is on a local disk, to prevent thrashing the network.

@xref{Invoking updatedb},
for the description of the options to @code{updatedb}, which specify
which directories would each database contain entries for.


@node Database Formats
@section Database Formats

The file name databases contain lists of files that were in particular
directory trees when the databases were last updated.  The file name
database format changed starting with GNU @code{locate} version 4.0 to
allow machines with different byte orderings to share the databases.  The
new GNU @code{locate} can read both the old and new database formats.
However, old versions of @code{locate} and @code{find} produce incorrect
results if given a new-format database.

If you run @samp{locate --statistics}, the resulting summary indicates
the type of each locate database.  


@menu
* New Database Format::
* Sample Database::
* Old Database Format::
@end menu

@node New Database Format
@subsection New Database Format

@code{updatedb} runs a program called @code{frcode} to
@dfn{front-compress} the list of file names, which reduces the database
size by a factor of 4 to 5.  Front-compression (also known as
incremental encoding) works as follows.

The database entries are a sorted list (case-insensitively, for users'
convenience).  Since the list is sorted, each entry is likely to share a
prefix (initial string) with the previous entry.  Each database entry
begins with an offset-differential count byte, which is the additional
number of characters of prefix of the preceding entry to use beyond the
number that the preceding entry is using of its predecessor.  (The
counts can be negative.)  Following the count is a null-terminated ASCII
remainder---the part of the name that follows the shared prefix.

If the offset-differential count is larger than can be stored in a byte
(+/-127), the byte has the value 0x80 and the count follows in a 2-byte
word, with the high byte first (network byte order).

Every database begins with a dummy entry for a file called
@file{LOCATE02}, which @code{locate} checks for to ensure that the
database file has the correct format; it ignores the entry in doing the
search.

Databases can not be concatenated together, even if the first (dummy)
entry is trimmed from all but the first database.  This is because the
offset-differential count in the first entry of the second and following
databases will be wrong.

In the output of @samp{locate --statistics}, the new database format
is referred to as @samp{LOCATE02}.

@node Sample Database
@subsection Sample Database

Sample input to @code{frcode}:
@c with nulls changed to newlines:

@example
/usr/src
/usr/src/cmd/aardvark.c
/usr/src/cmd/armadillo.c
/usr/tmp/zoo
@end example

Length of the longest prefix of the preceding entry to share:

@example
0 /usr/src
8 /cmd/aardvark.c
14 rmadillo.c
5 tmp/zoo
@end example

Output from @code{frcode}, with trailing nulls changed to newlines
and count bytes made printable:

@example
0 LOCATE02
0 /usr/src
8 /cmd/aardvark.c
6 rmadillo.c
-9 tmp/zoo
@end example

(6 = 14 - 8, and -9 = 5 - 14)

@node Old Database Format
@subsection Old Database Format

The old database format is used by Unix @code{locate} and @code{find}
programs and earlier releases of the GNU ones.  @code{updatedb} produces
this format if given the @samp{--old-format} option.

@code{updatedb} runs programs called @code{bigram} and @code{code} to
produce old-format databases.  The old format differs from the new one
in the following ways.  Instead of each entry starting with an
offset-differential count byte and ending with a null, byte values from
0 through 28 indicate offset-differential counts from -14 through 14.
The byte value indicating that a long offset-differential count follows
is 0x1e (30), not 0x80.  The long counts are stored in host byte order,
which is not necessarily network byte order, and host integer word size,
which is usually 4 bytes.  They also represent a count 14 less than
their value.  The database lines have no termination byte; the start of
the next line is indicated by its first byte having a value <= 30.

In addition, instead of starting with a dummy entry, the old database
format starts with a 256 byte table containing the 128 most common
bigrams in the file list.  A bigram is a pair of adjacent bytes.  Bytes
in the database that have the high bit set are indexes (with the high
bit cleared) into the bigram table.  The bigram and offset-differential
count coding makes these databases 20-25% smaller than the new format,
but makes them not 8-bit clean.  Any byte in a file name that is in the
ranges used for the special codes is replaced in the database by a
question mark, which not coincidentally is the shell wildcard to match a
single character.

The old format therefore can not faithfully store entries with non-ASCII
characters. It therefore should not be used in internationalized
environments.

The output of @samp{locate --statistics} will give an incorrect count
of the number of filenames containing newlines or high-bit characters
for old-format databases.

@node Newline Handling
@section Newline Handling

Within the database, filenames are terminated with a null character.
This is the case for both the old and the new format.  

When the new database format is being used, the compression technique
used to generate the database though relies on the ability to sort the
list of files before they are presented to @code{frcode}.

If the system's sort command allows its input list of files to be
separated with null characters via the @samp{-z} option, this option
is used and therefore @code{updatedb} and @code{locate} will both
correctly handle filenames containing newlines.  If the @code{sort}
command lacks support for this, the list of files is delimited with
the newline character, meaning that parts of filenames containing
newlines will be incorrectly sorted.  This can result in both
incorrect matches and incorrect failures to match.

On the other hand, if you are using the old database format, filenames
with embedded newlines are not correctly handled.  There is no
technical limitation which enforces this, it's just that the
@code{bigram} program has no been updated to support lists of
filenames separated by nulls.

So, if you are using the new database format (this is the default) and
your system uses GNU @code{find}, newlines will be correctly handled
at all times.  Otherwise, newlines may not be correctly handled.

@node File Permissions, Reference, Databases, Top
@chapter File Permissions

@include perm.texi

@node Reference, Security Considerations, File Permissions, Top
@chapter Reference

Below are summaries of the command line syntax for the programs
discussed in this manual.

@menu
* Invoking find::
* Invoking locate::
* Invoking updatedb::
* Invoking xargs::
@end menu

@node Invoking find, Invoking locate, , Reference
@section Invoking @code{find}

@example
find @r{[-H] [-L] [-P]} @r{[}@var{file}@dots{}@r{]} @r{[}@var{expression}@r{]}
@end example

@code{find} searches the directory tree rooted at each file name
@var{file} by evaluating the @var{expression} on each file it finds in
the tree.

The options @samp{-H}, @samp{-L} or @samp{-P} may be specified at the
start of the command line (if none of these is specified, @samp{-P} is
assumed).  The arguments after these are a list of files or
directories that should be searched.

This list of files to search is followed by a list of expressions
describing the files we wish to search for.  The first part of the
expression is recognised by the fact that it begins with @samp{-},
@samp{(}, @samp{)}, @samp{,}, or @samp{!}.  Any arguments after it are
the rest of the expression.  If no paths are given, the current
directory is used.  If no expression is given, the expression
@samp{-print} is used.

@code{find} exits with status 0 if all files are processed successfully,
greater than 0 if errors occur.

Three options can precede the list of path names.  They determine the
way that symbolic links are handled.

@table @code
@item -P
Never follow symbolic links (this is the default), except in the case
of the @samp{-xtype} predicate.
@item -L
Always follow symbolic links, except in the case of the @samp{-xtype}
predicate.
@item -H
Follow symbolic links specified in the list of paths to search, or
which are otherwise specified on the command line.
@end table

If @code{find} would follow a symbolic link, but cannot for any reason
(for example, because it has insufficient permissions or the link is
broken), it falls back on using the properties of the symbolic link
itself.  @ref{Symbolic Links} for a more complete description of how
symbolic links are handled.

@xref{Primary Index}, for a summary of all of the tests, actions, and
options that the expression can contain.  If the expression is
missing, @samp{-print} is assumed.



@code{find} also recognizes two options for administrative use:

@table @code
@item --help
Print a summary of the command-line argument format and exit.
@item --version
Print the version number of @code{find} and exit.
@end table


@menu
* Warning Messages::
@end menu


@node Warning Messages,,, Invoking find
@subsection Warning Messages

If there is an error on the @code{find} command line, an error message
is normally issued.  However, there are some usages that are
inadvisable but which @code{find} should still accept.  Under these
circumstances, @code{find} may issue a warning message.  By default,
warnings are enabled only if @code{find} is being run interactively
(specifically, if the standard input is a terminal).  Warning messages
can be controlled explicitly by the use of options on the command
line:

@table @code
@item -warn
Issue warning messages where appropriate.
@item -nowarn
Do not issue warning messages.
@end table

These options take effect at the point on the command line where they
are specified.  Therefore if you specify @samp{-nowarn} at the end of
the command line, you will not see warning messages for any problems
occurring before that.  The warning messages affected by the above
options are triggered by:

@itemize @minus
@item
Use of the @samp{-d} option which is deprecated; please use
@samp{-depth} instead, since the latter is POSIX-compliant.
@item
Use of the @samp{-ipath} option which is deprecated; please use
@samp{-iwholename} instead.
@item 
Specifying an option (for example @samp{-mindepth}) after a non-option
(for example @samp{-type} or @samp{-print}) on the command line.
@end itemize


The default behaviour above is designed to work in that way so that
existing shell scripts which use such constructs don't generate
spurious errors, but people will be made aware of the problem.

Some warning messages are issued for less common or more serious
problems, and so cannot be turned off:

@itemize @minus
@item
Use of an unrecognised backslash escape sequence with @samp{-fprintf}
@item
Use of an unrecognised formatting directive with @samp{-fprintf}
@end itemize

@node Invoking locate, Invoking updatedb, Invoking find, Reference
@section Invoking @code{locate}

@example
locate @r{[}@var{option}@dots{}@r{]} @var{pattern}@dots{}
@end example

@table @code
@item --database=@var{path}
@itemx -d @var{path}
Instead of searching the default file name database, search the file
name databases in @var{path}, which is a colon-separated list of
database file names.  You can also use the environment variable
@code{LOCATE_PATH} to set the list of database files to search.  The
option overrides the environment variable if both are used.

@item --existing
@itemx -e
Only print out such names which currently exist (instead of such names
which existed when the database was created).
Note that this may slow down the program a lot, if there are many matches
in the database.

@item --ignore-case
@itemx -i
Ignore case distinctions in both the pattern and the file names.

@item --null
@itemx -0
Results are separated with the ASCII NUL character rather than the
newline character.  To get the full benefit of the use of this option,
use the new locate database format (that is the default anyway).

@item --count
@itemx -c
Just print the number of results, not the results themselves.

@item --limit=N
@itemx -l N
Limit the number of results printed to N.  If you use the
@samp{--count} option, the value printed will never be larger than
this limit.

@item --wholename
The specified pattern is matched against the whole name of the file in
the locate database.  If the pattern contains metacharacters, it must
match exactly.  If not, it must match part of the whole file name.
This is the default behaviour.

@item --basename
The specified pattern is matched against just the last component of
the name of the file in the locate database.  This last component is
also called the ``base name''.  For example, the base name of
@file{/tmp/mystuff/foo.old.c} is @file{foo.old.c}.  If the pattern
contains metacharacters, it must match exactly.  If not, it must match
part of the whole file name.

@item --statistics
Print some summary information for each locate database.  No search is
performed. 

@item --help
Print a summary of the options to @code{locate} and exit.

@item --version
Print the version number of @code{locate} and exit.
@end table

@node Invoking updatedb, Invoking xargs, Invoking locate, Reference
@section Invoking @code{updatedb}

@example
updatedb @r{[}@var{option}@dots{}@r{]}
@end example

@table @code
@item --findoptions='@var{OPTION}@dots{}'
Global options to pass on to @code{find}.
The environment variable @code{FINDOPTIONS} also sets this value.
Default is none.

@item --localpaths='@var{path}@dots{}'
Non-network directories to put in the database.
Default is @file{/}.

@item --netpaths='@var{path}@dots{}'
Network (NFS, AFS, RFS, etc.) directories to put in the database.
The environment variable @code{NETPATHS} also sets this value.
Default is none.

@item --prunepaths='@var{path}@dots{}'
Directories to omit from the database, which would otherwise be included.
The environment variable @code{PRUNEPATHS} also sets this value.
Default is @file{/tmp /usr/tmp /var/tmp /afs}.

@item --prunefs='@var{path}@dots{}'
File systems to omit from the database, which would otherwise be included.
Note that files are pruned when a file system is reached;
Any file system mounted under an undesired file system will be
ignored.
The environment variable @code{PRUNEFS} also sets this value.
Default is @file{nfs NFS proc}.

@item --output=@var{dbfile}
The database file to build.
Default is system-dependent, but typically @file{/usr/local/var/locatedb}.

@item --localuser=@var{user}
The user to search the non-network directories as, using @code{su}.
Default is to search the non-network directories as the current user.
You can also use the environment variable @code{LOCALUSER} to set this user.

@item --netuser=@var{user}
The user to search network directories as, using @code{su}.
Default is @code{daemon}.
You can also use the environment variable @code{NETUSER} to set this user.

@item --old-format
Generate a locate database in the old format, for compatibility with
versions of @code{locate} other than GNU @code{locate}.  Using this
option means that @code{locate} will not be able to properly handle
non-ASCII characters in filenames (that is, filenames containing
characters which have the eighth bit set, such as many of the
characters from the ISO-8859-1 character set).
@item --help
Print a summary of the command-line argument format and exit.
@item --version
Print the version number of @code{updatedb} and exit.
@end table

@node Invoking xargs, ,  Invoking updatedb, Reference
@section Invoking @code{xargs}

@example
xargs @r{[}@var{option}@dots{}@r{]} @r{[}@var{command} @r{[}@var{initial-arguments}@r{]}@r{]}
@end example

@code{xargs} exits with the following status:

@table @asis
@item 0
if it succeeds
@item 123
if any invocation of the command exited with status 1-125
@item 124
if the command exited with status 255
@item 125
if the command is killed by a signal
@item 126
if the command cannot be run
@item 127
if the command is not found
@item 1
if some other error occurred.
@end table

@table @code
@item --arg-file@r{=@var{inputfile}}
@itemx -a @r{=@var{inputfile}}
Read names from the file @var{inputfile} instead of standard input.

@item --null
@itemx -0
Input filenames are terminated by a null character instead of by
whitespace, and the quotes and backslash are not special (every
character is taken literally).  Disables the end of file string, which
is treated like any other argument.

@item --eof@r{[}=@var{eof-str}@r{]}
@itemx -e@r{[}@var{eof-str}@r{]}
Set the end of file string to @var{eof-str}.  If the end of file string
occurs as a line of input, the rest of the input is ignored.  If
@var{eof-str} is omitted, there is no end of file string.  If this
option is not given, the end of file string defaults to @samp{_}.

@item --help
Print a summary of the options to @code{xargs} and exit.

@item --replace@r{[}=@var{replace-str}@r{]}
@itemx -i@r{[}@var{replace-str}@r{]}
Replace occurrences of @var{replace-str} in the initial arguments with
names read from standard input.  Also, unquoted blanks do not
terminate arguments; instead, the input is split at newlines only.
If @var{replace-str} is omitted, it defaults to @samp{@{@}}
(like for @samp{find -exec}).  Implies @samp{-x} and @samp{-l 1}.

@item --max-lines@r{[}=@var{max-lines}@r{]}
@itemx -l@r{[}@var{max-lines}@r{]}
Use at most @var{max-lines} nonblank input lines per command line;
@var{max-lines} defaults to 1 if omitted.  Trailing blanks cause an
input line to be logically continued on the next input line, for the
purpose of counting the lines.  Implies @samp{-x}.

@item --max-args=@var{max-args}
@itemx -n @var{max-args}
Use at most @var{max-args} arguments per command line.  Fewer than
@var{max-args} arguments will be used if the size (see the @samp{-s}
option) is exceeded, unless the @samp{-x} option is given, in which case
@code{xargs} will exit.

@item --interactive
@itemx -p
Prompt the user about whether to run each command line and read a line
from the terminal.  Only run the command line if the response starts
with @samp{y} or @samp{Y}.  Implies @samp{-t}.

@item --no-run-if-empty
@itemx -r
If the standard input does not contain any nonblanks, do not run the
command.  By default, the command is run once even if there is no input.

@item --max-chars=@var{max-chars}
@itemx -s @var{max-chars}
Use at most @var{max-chars} characters per command line, including the
command and initial arguments and the terminating nulls at the ends of
the argument strings.

@item --verbose
@itemx -t
Print the command line on the standard error output before executing
it.

@item --version
Print the version number of @code{xargs} and exit.

@item --exit
@itemx -x
Exit if the size (see the @samp{-s} option) is exceeded.


@item --max-procs=@var{max-procs}
@itemx -P @var{max-procs}
Run up to @var{max-procs} processes at a time; the default is 1.  If
@var{max-procs} is 0, @code{xargs} will run as many processes as
possible at a time.
@end table

@node Security Considerations, Error Messages, Reference, Top
@chapter Security Considerations

Security considerations are important if you are using @code{find} or
@code{xargs} to search for or process files that don't belong to you
or over which other people have control.  Security considerations
relating to @code{locate} may also apply if you have files which you
may not want others to see.   

In general, the most severe forms of security problems affecting
@code{find} and related programs are where third parties can bring
about a situation where those programs allow them to do something
they would normally not be able to do.  This is called @emph{privilege
elevation}.  This might include deleting files they would not normally
be able to delete.  It is also common for the system to periodically
invoke @code{find} for housekeeping purposes.  These invocations of
@code{find} are particularly problematic from a security point of view
as these are often invoked by the superuser and search the whole file
system hierarchy.  The severity of any associated problem depends on
what the system is going to do with the output of @code{find}.

@menu
* Levels of Risk::      What is your level of exposure to security problems?
* Security Considerations for find::  Security problems with find
* Security Considerations for xargs:: Security problems with xargs
* Security Considerations for locate:: Security problems with locate
* Security Summary:: That was all very complex, what does it boil down to?
@end menu


@node Levels of Risk
@section Levels of Risk

There are some security risks inherent in the use of @code{find},
@code{xargs} and (to a lesser extent) @code{locate}.  The severity of
these risks depends on what sort of system you are using:

@table @strong
@item High risk
Multi-user systems where you do not control (or trust) the other
users, and on which you execute @code{find}, including areas where
those other users can manipulate the filesystem (for example beneath
@file{/home} or @file{/tmp}).

@item Medium Risk
Systems where the actions of other users can create filenames chosen
by them, but to which they don't have access while @code{find} is
being run.  This access might include leaving programs running (shell
background jobs, @code{at} or @code{cron} tasks, for example).  On
these sorts of systems, carefully written commands (avoiding use of
@samp{-print} for example) should not expose you to a high degree of
risk.  Most systems fall into this category.

@item Low Risk
Systems to which untrusted parties do not have access, cannot create
filenames of their own choice (even remotely) and which contain no
security flaws which might enable an untrusted third party to gain
access.  Most systems do not fall into this category because there are
many ways in which external parties can affect the names of files that
are created on your system.  The system on which I am writing this for
example automatically downloads software updates from the Internet;
the names of the files in which these updates exist are chosen by
third parties@footnote{Of course, I trust these parties to a large
extent anyway, because I install software provided by them; I choose
to trust them in this way, and that's a deliberate choice}.
@end table

In the discussion above, ``risk'' denotes the likelihood that someone
can cause @code{find}, @code{xargs}, @code{locate} or some other
program which is controlled by them to do something you did not
intend.  The levels of risk suggested do not take any account of the
consequences of this sort of event.  That is, if you operate a ``low
risk'' type system, but the consequences of a security problem are
disastrous, then you should still give serious thought to all the
possible security problems, many of which of course will not be
discussed here -- this section of the manual is intended to be
informative but not comprehensive or exhaustive.   

If you are responsible for the operation of a system where the
consequences of a security problem could be very important, you should
do two things:-

@enumerate
@item Define a security policy which defines who is allowed to do what
on your system
@item Seek competent advice on how to enforce your policy, detect
breaches of that policy, and take account of any potential problems
that might fall outside the scope of your policy
@end enumerate


@node Security Considerations for find
@section Security Considerations for find


Some of the actions @code{find} might take have a direct effect;
these include @code{-exec} and @code{-delete}.  However, it is also
common to use @code{-print} explicitly or implicitly, and so if
@code{find} produces the wrong list of filenames, that can also be a
security problem; consider the case for example where @code{find} is
producing a list of files to be deleted.

We normally assume that the @code{find} command line expresses the
file selection criteria and actions that the user had in mind -- that
is, the command line is ``trusted'' data.  

From a security analysis point of view, the output of @code{find}
should be correct; that is, the output should contain only the names
of those files which meet the user's criteria specified on the command
line.  This applies for the @code{-exec} and @code{-delete} actions;
one can consider these to be part of the output.

On the other hand, the contents of the filesystem can be manipulated
by other people, and hence we regard this as ``untrusted'' data.  This
implies that the @code{find} command line is a filter which converts
the untrusted contents of the filesystem into a correct list of output
files.   

The filesystem will in general change while @code{find} is searching
it; in fact, most of the potential security problems with @code{find}
relate to this issue in some way.

Race conditions are a general class of security problem where the
relative ordering of actions taken by @code{find} (for example) and
something else are important@footnote{This is more or less the
definition of the term ``race condition''} .  

Typically, an attacker might move or rename files or directories in
the hope that an action might be taken against a a file which was not
normally intended to be affected.  Alternatively, this sort of attack
might be intended to persuade @code{find} to search part of the
filesystem which would not normally be included in the search
(defeating the @code{-prune} action for example).  

@subsection Changing the Current Working Directory
As find searches the file system, it finds subdirectories and then
searches within them by changing its working directory.    First,
@code{find} notices a subdirectory.  It then decides if that
subdirectory meets the criteria for being searched; that is, any
@samp{-xdev} or @samp{-prune} expressions are taken into account.  The
@code{find} program will then change working directory using the
@code{chdir()} system call and proceed to search the directory.  

A race condition attack might take the form that once the checks
relevant to @samp{-xdev} and @samp{-prune} have been done, an attacker
might rename the directory that was being considered, and put in its
place a symbolic link that actually points somewhere else.  The
@code{find} command would then issue the @code{chdir()} system call,
changing its working directory to the destination of the symbolic link
(@code{chdir()} will always dereference symbolic links).  This
manipulation leaves @code{find} with a working directory chosen by an
attacker, bypassing any protection apparently provided by @samp{-xdev}
and @samp{-prune}, and any protection provided by being able to
@emph{not} list particular directories on the @code{find} command
line.  This form of attack is particularly problematic if the attacker
can predict when the @code{find} command will be run, as is the case
with @code{cron} tasks for example.  

GNU @code{find} has specific safeguards to prevent this general class
of problem.  Each time @code{find} changes directory, it examines the
directory it is about to move to, issues the @code{chdir()} system
call, and then checks that it has ended up in the subdirectory it
expected.  If not, an error message is issued and @code{find} exits
immediately.  This prevents filesystem manipulation attacks from
persuading @code{find} to search parts of the filesystem it did not
intend.

Where an automounter is in use, it can be the case that the use of the
@code{chdir()} system call can itself cause a new filesystem to be
mounted at that point.  This will cause @code{find}'s security check
to fail.  However, this does not normally represent a security problem
(since the automounter configuration is normally set up by the system
administrator).  Therefore, if the @code{chdir()} sanity check fails,
@code{find} will check to see if a new filesystem has been mounted at
the current directory; if so, @code{find} will issue a warning message
and continue.  


@subsection Race Conditions with -exec

The @samp{-exec} action causes another program to be run.  It is
passed the name of the file which is being considered at the time.
The invoked program will then - normally - perform some action on that
file.  Once again, there is a race condition which can be exploited
here.  We shall take as a specific example the command

@example 
find /tmp -path /tmp/umsp/passwd -exec /bin/rm
@end example

In this simple example, we are identifying just one file to be deleted
and invoking @code{/bin/rm} to delete it.  A problem exists because
there is a time gap between the point where @code{find} decides that
it needs to process the @samp{-exec} action and the point where the
@code{/bin/rm} command actually issues the @code{unlink()} system
call.  Within this time period, an attacker can rename the
@file{/tmp/umsp} directory, replacing it with a symbolic link to
@file{/etc}.   There is no way for @code{/bin/rm} to determine that it
is working on the same file that @code{find} had in mind.   Once the
symbolic link is in place, the attacker has persuaded @code{find} to
cause the deletion of the @file{/etc/passwd} file, which is not the
effect intended by the command which was actually invoked.  

One possible defence against this type of attack is to modify the
behaviour of @samp{-exec} so that the @code{/bin/rm} command is run
with the argument @file{./passwd} and a suitable choice of working
directory.  This would allow the normal sanity check that @code{find}
performs to protect against this form of attack too.  Unfortunately,
this strategy cannot be used as the POSIX standard specifies that the
current working directory for commands invoked via @samp{-exec} must
be the same as the current working directory from which @code{find}
was invoked.   This means that the @samp{-exec} action is inherently
insecure and can't be fixed.   

GNU @code{find} implements a more secure variant of the @samp{-exec}
action, @samp{-execdir}@footnote{at the time of writing -execdir is
not yet implemented, but is planned}.  The @samp{-execdir} action
ensures that it is not necessary to dereference subdirectories to
process target files.  The current directory used to invoke programs
is the same as the directory in which the file to be processed exists
(@file{/tmp/umsp} in our example, and only the basename of the file to
be processed is passed to the invoked command, with a @samp{./}
prepended (giving @file{./passwd} in our example).


@subsection Race Conditions with -print and -print0

The @samp{-print} and @samp{-print0} actions can be used to produce a
list of files matching some criteria, which can then be used with some
other command, perhaps with @code{xargs}.   Unfortunately, this means
that there is an unavoidable time gap between @code{find} deciding
that one or more files meet its criteria and the relevant command
being executed.  For this reason, the @samp{-print} and @samp{-print0}
actions are just as insecure as @samp{-exec}.

In fact, since the construction 

@example
find ....   -print | xargs ....
@end example

does not cope correctly with newlines or other ``white space'' in
filenames, and copes poorly with filenames containing quotes, the
@samp{-print} action is less secure even than @samp{-print0}.


@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@comment @node Security Considerations for xargs
@node Security Considerations for xargs
@section Security Considerations for @code{xargs}

The description of the race conditions affecting the @samp{-print}
action of @code{find} shows that @code{xargs} cannot be secure if it
is possible for an attacker to modify a filesystem after @code{find}
has started but before @code{xargs} has completed all its actions.

However, there are other security issues that exist even if it is not
possible for an attacker to have access to the filesystem in real
time.  Firstly, if it is possible for an attacker to create files with
names of their own choice on the filesystem, then @code{xargs} is
insecure unless the @samp{-0} option is used.  If a file with the name
@file{/home/someuser/foo/bar\n/etc/passwd} exists (assume that
@samp{\n} stands for a newline character), then @code{find ... -print}
can be persuaded to print three separate lines:

@example
/home/someuser/foo/bar

/etc/passwd
@end example

If it finds a blank line in the input, @code{xargs} will ignore it.
Therefore, if some action is to be taken on the basis of this list of
files, the @file{/etc/passwd} file would be included even if this was
not the intent of the person running find.  There are circumstances in
which an attacker can use this to their advantage.  The same
consideration applies to filenames containing ordinary spaces rather
than newlines, except that of course the list of filenames will no
longer contain an ``extra'' newline.

This problem is an unavoidable consequence of the default behaviour of
the @code{xargs} command, which is specified by the POSIX standard.
The only ways to avoid this problem are either to avoid all use of
@code{xargs} in favour for example of @samp{find -exec} or (where
available) @samp{find -execdir}, or to use the @samp{-0} option, which
ensures that @code{xargs} considers filenames to be separated by ASCII
NUL characters rather than whitespace.   However, useful though this
option is, the POSIX standard does not make it mandatory.

@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@node Security Considerations for locate
@section Security Considerations for @code{locate}

It is fairly unusual for the output of @code{locate} to be fed into
another command.  However, if this were to be done, this would raise
the same set of security issues as the use of @samp{find ... -print}.
Although the problems relating to whitespace in filenames can be
resolved by using @code{locate}'s @samp{-0} option, this still leaves
the race condition problems associated with @samp{find ... -print0}.
There is no way to avoid these problems in the case of @code{locate}.

@node Security Summary
@section Summary

Where untrusted parties can create files on the system, or affect the
names of files that are created, all uses for @code{find},
@code{locate} and @code{xargs} have known security problems except the
following:

@table @asis
@item Informational use only
Uses where the programs are used to prepare lists of filenames upon which no further action will ever be taken.

@item -delete 
Use of the @samp{-delete} action to delete files which meet
specified criteria

@item -execdir 
Use of the @samp{-execdir} action where the @env{PATH}
environment variable contains directories which contain only trusted
programs. 
@end table

Please note that the @samp{-execdir} option is not yet implemented.


@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@node Error Messages, Primary Index, Security Considerations, Top
@chapter Error Messages

This section describes some of the error messages you might get from
@code{find}, @code{xargs}, or @code{locate}, explains them and in some
cases provides advice as to what you should do about this.

This manual is written in English.  The GNU findutils software
features translated error messages for many languages.  For this
reason where possible we try to make the error messages produced by
the programs self-explanatory.  This approach avoids asking people to
figure out which English-language error message the test they actually
saw might correspond to. Error messages which are self-explanatory
will not normally be described or discussed in this document.  For
those messages which are discussed in this document, only the
English-language version of the message will be listed.

@menu
* Error Messages From find::
* Error Messages From xargs::
* Error Messages From locate::
* Error Messages From updatedb::
@end menu

@node Error Messages From find, Error Messages From xargs, , Error Messages
@section Error Messages From find

@table @samp
@item invalid predicate `-foo'
This means that the @code{find} command line included something that
started with a dash or other special character.  The @code{find}
program tried to interpret this as a test, action or option, but
didn't recognise it.  If you intended it to be a test, check what you
specified against the documentation.  If, on the other hand, the
string is the name of a file which has been expanded from a wildcard
(for example because you have a @samp{*} on the command line),
consider using @samp{./*} or just @samp{.} instead.

@item unexpected extra predicate
This usually happens if you have an extra bracket on the command line
(for example @samp{find . -print \)}).

@item Warning: filesystem /path/foo has recently been mounted
@itemx Warning: filesystem /path/foo has recently been unmounted
These messages might appear when @code{find} moves into a directory
and finds that the device number and inode are different to what it
expected them to be.  If the directory @code{find} has moved into is
on an NFS filesystem, it will not issue this message, because
@code{automount} frequently mounts new filesystems on directories as
you move into them (that is how it knows you want to use the
filesystem).  So, if you do see this message, be wary --
@code{automount} may not have been responsible.  Consider the
possibility that someone else is manipulating the filesystem while
@code{find} is running.  Some people might do this in order to mislead
@code{find} or persuade it to look at one set of files when it thought
it was looking at another set.

@item /path/foo changed during execution of find (old device number 12345, new device number 6789, filesystem type is <whatever>) [ref XXX]
This message is issued when @code{find} changes directory and ends up
somewhere it didn't expect to be.  This happens in one of two
circumstances.  Firstly this happens when ``automount'' does its thing
on a system where @code{find} doesn't know how to determine what the
current set of mounted filesystems is@footnote{To do this, @code{find}
requires to be able to use @code{getmntent()} - check the
@file{config.h} file for HAVE_GETMNTENT, which should be #defined to
1.  If HAVE_GETMNTENT is not set, consider submitting a problem report
to @email{bug-findutils@@gnu.org}, because @code{find} needs to be
able to figure out how to enumerate the mounted devices on your
system}.

Secondly, this can happen when the device number of a directory
appears to change during a change of current directory, but
@code{find} is moving up the filesystem hierarchy rather than down it.
In order to prevent @code{find} wandering off into some unexpected
part of the filesystem, we stop it at this point.

@item Don't know how to use getmntent() to read `/etc/mtab'.  This is a bug.
This message is issued when a problem similar to the above occurs on a
system where @code{find} doesn't know how to figure out the current
list of mount points.  Ask for help on @email{bug-findutils@@gnu.org}.

@item /path/foo/bar changed during execution of find (old inode number 12345, new inode number 67893, filesystem type is <whatever>) [ref XXX]"),
This message is issued when @code{find} changes directory and
discovers that the inode number of that directory once it's got there
is different to the inode number that it obtained when it examined the
directory some time previously.  This normally means that while
@code{find} has been deep in a directory hierarchy doing something
time consuming, somebody has moved the one of the parent directories
to another location in the same filesystem.  This may have been done
maliciously, or may not.  In any case, @code{find} stops at this point
in order to avoid traversing parts of the filesystem that it wasn't
intended to.  You can use @code{ls -li} or @code{find /path -inum
12345 -o -inum 67893} to find out more about what has happened.

@item sanity check of the fnmatch() library function failed.
Please submit a bug report.  You may well be asked questions about
your system, and if you compiled the @code{findutils} code yourself,
you should keep your copy of the build tree around.  The likely
explanation is that your system has a buggy implementation of
@code{fnmatch} that looks enough like the GNU version to fool
@code{configure}, but which doesn't work properly.

@item cannot fork
This normally happens if you use the @code{-exec} action or a
something similar (@code{-ok} and so forth) but the system has run out
of free process slots.  This is either because the system is very busy
and the system has reached its maximum process limit, or because you
have a resource limit in place and you've reached it.  Check the
system for runaway processes (if @code{ps} still works).  Some process
slots are normally reserved for use by @samp{root}.

@item some-program terminated by signal 99
Some program which was launched via @code{-exec} or similar was killed
with a fatal signal.  This is just an advisory message.
@end table



@node Error Messages From xargs, Error Messages From locate, Error Messages From find, Error Messages
@section Error Messages From xargs

@table @samp
@item environment is too large for exec
This message means that you have so many environment variables set
(or such large values for them) that there is no room within the
system-imposed limits on program command-line argument length to
invoke any program.  I'm sure you did this deliberately.  Please try
unsetting some environment variables, or exiting the current shell.

@item can not fit single argument within argument list size limit
You are using the @samp{-i} option and @code{xargs} doesn't have
enough space to build a command line because it has read in a really
large item and it doesn't fit.  You can probably work around this
problem with the @samp{-s} option, but the default size is pretty
large.  You must be trying pretty hard to break @code{xargs}.

@item cannot fork
See the description of the similar message for @code{find}.

@item <program>: exited with status 255; aborting
When a command run by @code{xargs} exits with status 255, @code{xargs}
is supposed to stop.  If this is not what you intended, wrap the
program you are trying to invoke in a shell script which doesn't
return status 255.

@item <program>: terminated by signal 99
See the description of the similar message for @code{find}.
@end table

@node Error Messages From locate, Error Messages From updatedb, Error Messages From xargs, Error Messages
@section Error Messages From locate

@table @samp
@item warning: database `/usr/local/var/locatedb' is more than 8 days old
The @code{locate} program relies on a database which is periodically
built by the @code{updatedb} program.  That hasn't happened in a long
time.  To fix this problem, run @code{updatedb} manually.  This can
often happen on systems that are generally not left on, so the periodic
``cron'' task which normally does this doesn't get a chance to run.

@item locate database `/usr/local/var/locatedb' is corrupt or invalid
This should not happen.  Re-run @code{updatedb}.  If that works, but
@code{locate} still produces this error, run @code{locate --version}
and @code{updatedb --version}.  These should produce the same output.
If not, you are using a mixed toolset; check your @samp{$PATH}
environment variable and your shell aliases (if you have any).  If
both programs claim to be GNU versions, this is a bug; all versions of
these programs should interoperate without problem.  Ask for help on
@email{bug-findutils@@gnu.org}.
@end table


@node Error Messages From updatedb, , Error Messages From locate, Error Messages
@section Error Messages From updatedb

The @code{updatedb} program (and the programs it invokes) do issue
error messages, but none of them seem to me to be candidates for
guidance.  If you are having a problem understanding one of these, ask
for help on @email{bug-findutils@@gnu.org}.

@node Primary Index, , Error Messages, Top
@unnumbered @code{find} Primary Index

This is a list of all of the primaries (tests, actions, and options)
that make up @code{find} expressions for selecting files.  @xref{find
Expressions}, for more information on expressions.

@printindex fn

@contents
@bye

@comment texi related words used by Emacs' spell checker ispell.el

@comment LocalWords: texinfo setfilename settitle setchapternewpage
@comment LocalWords: iftex finalout ifinfo DIR titlepage vskip pt
@comment LocalWords: filll dir samp dfn noindent xref pxref
@comment LocalWords: var deffn texi deffnx itemx emph asis
@comment LocalWords: findex smallexample subsubsection cindex
@comment LocalWords: dircategory direntry itemize

@comment other words used by Emacs' spell checker ispell.el
@comment LocalWords: README fred updatedb xargs Plett Rendell akefile
@comment LocalWords: args grep Filesystems fo foo fOo wildcards iname
@comment LocalWords: ipath regex iregex expr fubar regexps
@comment LocalWords: metacharacters macs sr sc inode lname ilname
@comment LocalWords: sysdep noleaf ls inum xdev filesystems usr atime
@comment LocalWords: ctime mtime amin cmin mmin al daystart Sladkey rm
@comment LocalWords: anewer cnewer bckw rf xtype uname gname uid gid
@comment LocalWords: nouser nogroup chown chgrp perm ch maxdepth
@comment LocalWords: mindepth cpio src CD AFS statted stat fstype ufs
@comment LocalWords: nfs tmp mfs printf fprint dils rw djm Nov lwall
@comment LocalWords: POSIXLY fls fprintf strftime locale's EDT GMT AP
@comment LocalWords: EST diff perl backquotes sprintf Falstad Oct cron
@comment LocalWords: eg vmunix mkdir afs allexec allwrite ARG bigram
@comment LocalWords: bigrams cd chmod comp crc CVS dbfile dum eof
@comment LocalWords: fileserver filesystem fn frcode Ghazi Hnewc iXX
@comment LocalWords: joeuser Kaveh localpaths localuser LOGNAME
@comment LocalWords: Meyering mv netpaths netuser nonblank nonblanks
@comment LocalWords: ois ok Pinard printindex proc procs prunefs
@comment LocalWords: prunepaths pwd RFS rmadillo rmdir rsh sbins str
@comment LocalWords: su Timar ubins ug unstripped vf VM Weitzel
@comment LocalWords: wildcard zlogout basename execdir wholename iwholename

@comment LocalWords:  occur when the @samp{-L} option
is used:

@itemize @bullet
@item
@code{find} follows symbolic links to directories when searching
directory trees.
@item
@samp{-lname} and @samp{-ilname} always return false (unless they
happen to match broken symbolic links).
@item
@samp{-type} reports the types of the files that symbolic links point
to.
@item
Implies @samp{-noleaf} (@pxref{Directories}).
@end itemize

If the @samp{-L} option or the @samp{-H} option is used, 
the filenames used as arguments to @samp{-newer}, @samp{-anewer}, and
@samp{-cnewer} are dereferenced and the timestamp from the pointed-to
file is used instead (if possible -- otherwise the timestamp from the
symbolic link is used).

@deffn Test -lname pattern
@deffnx Test -ilname pattern
True if the file is a symbolic link whose contents match shell pattern
@var{pattern}.  For @samp{-ilname}, the match is case-insensitive.
@xref{Shell Pattern Matching}, for details about the @var{pattern}
argument.  If the @samp{-L} option is in effect, this test will always
fail for symbolic links unless they are broken.  So, to list any
symbolic links to @file{sysdep.c} in the current directory and its
subdirectories, you can do:

@example
find . -lname '*sysdep.c'
@end example
@end deffn

@node Hard Links
@subsection Hard Links

To find hard links, first get the inode number of the file whose links
you want to find.  You can learn a file's inode number and the number of
links to it by running @samp{ls -i} or @samp{find -ls}.  If the file has
more than one link, you can search for the other links by passing that
inode number to @samp{-inum}.  Add the @samp{-xdev} option if you are
starting the search at a directory that has other filesystems mounted on
it, such as @file{/usr} on many systems.  Doing this saves needless
searching, since hard links to a file must be on the same filesystem.
@xref{Filesystems}.

@deffn Test -inum n
File has inode number @var{n}.  The @samp{+} and @samp{-} qualifiers
also work, though these are rarely useful.
@end deffn

You can also search for files that have a certain number of links, with
@samp{-links}.  Directories normally have at least two hard links; their
@file{.} entry is the second one.  If they have subdirectories, each of
those also has a hard link called @file{..} to its parent directory.

@deffn Test -links n
File has @var{n} hard links.
@end deffn

@deffn Test -links +n
File has more than @var{n} hard links.
@end deffn

@deffn Test -links -n
File has fewer than @var{n} hard links.
@end deffn

@node Time
@section Time

Each file has three time stamps, which record the last time that certain
operations were performed on the file:

@enumerate
@item
access (read the file's contents)
@item
change the status (modify the file or its attributes)
@item
modify (change the file's contents)
@end enumerate

There is no timestamp that indicates when a file was @emph{created}.

You can search for files whose time stamps are within a certain age
range, or compare them to other time stamps.  

@menu
* Age Ranges::
* Comparing Timestamps::
@end menu

@node Age Ranges
@subsection Age Ranges

These tests are mainly useful with ranges (@samp{+@var{n}} and
@samp{-@var{n}}).

@deffn Test -atime n
@deffnx Test -ctime n
@deffnx Test -mtime n
True if the file was last accessed (or its status changed, or it was
modified) @var{n}*24 hours ago.  The number of 24-hour periods since
the file's timestamp is always rounded down; therefore 0 means ``less
than 24 hours ago'', 1 means ``between 24 and 48 hours ago'', and so
forth.
@end deffn

@deffn Test -amin n
@deffnx Test -cmin n
@deffnx Test -mmin n
True if the file was last accessed (or its status changed, or it was
modified) @var{n} minutes ago.  These tests provide finer granularity of
measurement than @samp{-atime} et al., but rounding is done in a 
similar way.  For example, to list files in
@file{/u/bill} that were last read from 2 to 6 minutes ago:

@example
find /u/bill -amin +2 -amin -6
@end example
@end deffn

@deffn Option -daystart
Measure times from the beginning of today rather than from 24 hours ago.
So, to list the regular files in your home directory that were modified
yesterday, do

@example
find ~ -daystart -type f -mtime 1
@end example
@end deffn

The @samp{-daystart} option is unlike most other options in that it
has an effect on the way that other tests are performed.  The affected
tests are @samp{-amin}, @samp{-cmin}, @samp{-mmin}, @samp{-atime},
@samp{-ctime} and @samp{-mtime}.

@node Comparing Timestamps
@subsection Comparing Timestamps

As an alternative to comparing timestamps to the current time, you can
compare them to another file's timestamp.  That file's timestamp could
be updated by another program when some event occurs.  Or you could set
it to a particular fixed date using the @code{touch} command.  For
example, to list files in @file{/usr} modified after February 1 of the
current year:

@c Idea from Rick Sladkey.
@example
touch -t 02010000 /tmp/stamp$$
find /usr -newer /tmp/stamp$$
rm -f /tmp/stamp$$
@end example

@deffn Test -anewer file
@deffnx Test -cnewer file
@deffnx Test -newer file
True if the file was last accessed (or its status changed, or it was
modified) more recently than @var{file} was modified.  These tests are
affected by @samp{-follow} only if @samp{-follow} comes before them on
the command line.  @xref{Symbolic Links}, for more information on
@samp{-follow}.  As an example, to list any files modified since
@file{/bin/sh} was last modified:

@example
find . -newer /bin/sh
@end example
@end deffn

@deffn Test -used n
True if the file was last accessed @var{n} days after its status was
last changed.  Useful for finding files that are not being used, and
could perhaps be archived or removed to save disk space.
@end deffn

@node Size
@section Size

@deffn Test -size n@r{[}bckwMG@r{]}
True if the file uses @var{n} units of space, rounding up.  The units
are 512-byte blocks by default, but they can be changed by adding a
one-character suffix to @var{n}:

@table @code
@item b
512-byte blocks (never 1024)
@item c
bytes
@item k
kilobytes (1024 bytes)
@item w
2-byte words
@item M
Megabytes
@item G
Gigabytes
@end table

The `b' suffix always considers blocks to be 512 bytes.  This is not
affected by the setting (or non-setting) of the POSIXLY_CORRECT
environment variable.  This behaviour is different to the behaviour of
the @samp{-ls} action).  If you want to use 1024-byte units, use the
`k' suffix instead.

The number can be prefixed with a `+' or a `-'.  A plus sign indicates
that the test should succeed if the file uses at least @var{n} units
of storage (this is the way I normally use this test) and a minus sign
indicates that the test should succeed if the file uses less than
@var{n} units of storage.   There is no `=' prefix, because that's the 
default anyway.  

The size does not count indirect blocks, but it does count blocks in
sparse files that are not actually allocated.  This handling of sparse
files differs from the output of the @samp{%k} and @samp{%b} format
specifiers for the @samp{-printf} predicate.

@end deffn

@deffn Test -empty
True if the file is empty and is either a regular file or a directory.
This might make it a good candidate for deletion.  This test is useful
with @samp{-depth} (@pxref{Directories}) and @samp{-delete}
(@pxref{Single File}).
@end deffn

@node Type
@section Type

@deffn Test -type c
True if the file is of type @var{c}:

@table @code
@item b
block (buffered) special
@item c
character (unbuffered) special
@item d
directory
@item p
named pipe (FIFO)
@item f
regular file
@item l
symbolic link
@item s
socket
@item D
door (Solaris)
@end table
@end deffn

@deffn Test -xtype c
The same as @samp{-type} unless the file is a symbolic link.  For
symbolic links: if @samp{-follow} has not been given, true if the file
is a link to a file of type @var{c}; if @samp{-follow} has been given,
true if @var{c} is @samp{l}.  In other words, for symbolic links,
@samp{-xtype} checks the type of the file that @samp{-type} does not
check.  @xref{Symbolic Links}, for more information on @samp{-follow}.
@end deffn

@node Owner
@section Owner

@deffn Test -user uname
@deffnx Test -group gname
True if the file is owned by user @var{uname} (belongs to group @var{gname}).
A numeric ID is allowed.
@end deffn

@deffn Test -uid n
@deffnx Test -gid n
True if the file's numeric user ID (group ID) is @var{n}.  These tests
support ranges (@samp{+@var{n}} and @samp{-@var{n}}), unlike
@samp{-user} and @samp{-group}.
@end deffn

@deffn Test -nouser
@deffnx Test -nogroup
True if no user corresponds to the file's numeric user ID (no group
corresponds to the numeric group ID).  These cases usually mean that the
files belonged to users who have since been removed from the system.
You probably should change the ownership of such files to an existing
user or group, using the @code{chown} or @code{chgrp} program.
@end deffn

@node Permissions
@section Permissions

@xref{File Permissions}, for information on how file permissions are
structured and how to specify them.

@deffn Test -perm mode
True if the
file's permissions are exactly @var{mode} (which can be numeric or symbolic).
Symbolic modes use mode 0 as a point of departure.
If @var{mode} starts with @samp{-}, true if
@emph{all} of the permissions set in @var{mode} are set for the file;
permissions not set in @var{mode} are ignored.
If @var{mode} starts with @samp{+}, true if
@emph{any} of the permissions set in @var{mode} are set for the file;
permissions not set in @var{mode} are ignored.
@end deffn

@node Contents
@section Contents

To search for files based on their contents, you can use the @code{grep}
program.  For example, to find out which C source files in the current
directory contain the string @samp{thing}, you can do:

@example
grep -l thing *.[ch]
@end example

If you also want to search for the string in files in subdirectories,
you can combine @code{grep} with @code{find} and @code{xargs}, like
this:

@example
find . -name '*.[ch]' | xargs grep -l thing
@end example

The @samp{-l} option causes @code{grep} to print only the names of files
that contain the string, rather than the lines that contain it.  The
string argument (@samp{thing}) is actually a regular expression, so it
can contain metacharacters.  This method can be refined a little by
using the @samp{-r} option to make @code{xargs} not run @code{grep} if
@code{find} produces no output, and using the @code{find} action
@samp{-print0} and the @code{xargs} option @samp{-0} to avoid
misinterpreting files whose names contain spaces:

@example
find . -name '*.[ch]' -print0 | xargs -r -0 grep -l thing
@end example

For a fuller treatment of finding files whose contents match a pattern,
see the manual page for @code{grep}.

@node Directories
@section Directories

Here is how to control which directories @code{find} searches, and how
it searches them.  These two options allow you to process a horizontal
slice of a directory tree.

@deffn Option -maxdepth levels
Descend at most @var{levels} (a non-negative integer) levels of
directories below the command line arguments.  @samp{-maxdepth 0} means
only apply the tests and actions to the command line arguments.
@end deffn

@deffn Option -mindepth levels
Do not apply any tests or actions at levels less than @var{levels} (a
non-negative integer).  @samp{-mindepth 1} means process all files
except the command line arguments.
@end deffn

@deffn Option -depth
Process each directory's contents before the directory itself.  Doing
this is a good idea when producing lists of files to archive with
@code{cpio} or @code{tar}.  If a directory does not have write
permission for its owner, its contents can still be restored from the
archive since the directory's permissions are restored after its contents.
@end deffn

@deffn Option -d
This is a deprecated synonym for @samp{-depth}, for compatibility with
Mac OS X, FreeBSD and OpenBSD.   The @samp{-depth} option is a POSIX
feature, so it is better to use that.
@end deffn

@deffn Action -prune
If the file is a directory, do not descend into it.  The result is
true.  For example, to skip the directory @file{src/emacs} and all
files and directories under it, and print the names of the other files
found:

@example
find . -wholename './src/emacs' -prune -o -print
@end example

The above command will not print @file{./src/emacs} among its list of
results.  This however is not due to the effect of the @samp{-prune}
action (which only prevents further descent, it doesn't make sure we
ignore that item).  Instead, this effect is due to the use of
@samp{-o}.  Since the left hand side of the ``or'' condition has
succeeded for @file{./src/emacs}, it is not necessary to evaluate the
right-hand-side (@samp{-print}) at all for this particular file.  If
you wanted to print that directory name you could use either an extra
@samp{-print} action:

@example
find . -wholename './src/emacs' -prune -print -o -print
@end example

or use the comma operator:

@example
find . -wholename './src/emacs' -prune , -print
@end example

If the @samp{-depth} option is in effect, the subdirectories will have
already been visited in any case.  Hence @samp{-prune} has no effect
and returns false.
@end deffn


@deffn Action -quit
Exit immediately with return value zero.  No child processes will be
left running, but no more paths specified on the command line will be 
processed.   For example, @code{find /tmp/foo /tmp/bar -print -quit}
will print only @samp{/tmp/foo}.
@end deffn 

@deffn Option -noleaf
Do not optimize by assuming that directories contain 2 fewer
subdirectories than their hard link count.  This option is needed when
searching filesystems that do not follow the Unix directory-link
convention, such as CD-ROM or MS-DOS filesystems or AFS volume mount
points.  Each directory on a normal Unix filesystem has at least 2 hard
links: its name and its @file{.}  entry.  Additionally, its
subdirectories (if any) each have a @file{..}  entry linked to that
directory.  When @code{find} is examining a directory, after it has
statted 2 fewer subdirectories than the directory's link count, it knows
that the rest of the entries in the directory are non-directories
(@dfn{leaf} files in the directory tree).  If only the files' names need
to be examined, there is no need to stat them; this gives a significant
increase in search speed.
@end deffn

@deffn Option -ignore_readdir_race
If a file disappears after its name has been read from a directory but
before @code{find} gets around to examining the file with @code{stat},
don't issue an error message.  If you don't specify this option, an
error message will be issued.  This option can be useful in system
scripts (cron scripts, for example) that examine areas of the
filesystem that change frequently (mail queues, temporary directories,
and so forth), because this scenario is common for those sorts of
directories.  Completely silencing error messages from @code{find} is
undesirable, so this option neatly solves the problem.  There is no
way to search one part of the filesystem with this option on and part
of it with this option off, though.
@end deffn

@deffn Option -noignore_readdir_race
This option reverses the effect of the @samp{-ignore_readdir_race} option.
@end deffn


@node Filesystems
@section Filesystems

A @dfn{filesystem} is a section of a disk, either on the local host or
mounted from a remote host over a network.  Searching network
filesystems can be slow, so it is common to make @code{find} avoid them.

There are two ways to avoid searching certain filesystems.  One way is
to tell @code{find} to only search one filesystem:

@deffn Option -xdev
@deffnx Option -mount
Don't descend directories on other filesystems.  These options are synonyms.
@end deffn

The other way is to check the type of filesystem each file is on, and
not descend directories that are on undesirable filesystem types:

@deffn Test -fstype type
True if the file is on a filesystem of type @var{type}.  The valid
filesystem types vary among different versions of Unix; an incomplete
list of filesystem types that are accepted on some version of Unix or
another is:
@example
ext2 ext3 proc sysfs ufs 4.2 4.3 nfs tmp mfs S51K S52K
@end example
You can use @samp{-printf} with the @samp{%F} directive to see the types
of your filesystems.  The @samp{%D} directive shows the device number.
@xref{Print File Information}.  @samp{-fstype} is
usually used with @samp{-prune} to avoid searching remote filesystems
(@pxref{Directories}). 
@end deffn

@node Combining Primaries With Operators
@section Combining Primaries With Operators

Operators build a complex expression from tests and actions.
The operators are, in order of decreasing precedence:

@table @code
@item @asis{( @var{expr} )}
@findex ()
Force precedence.  True if @var{expr} is true.

@item @asis{! @var{expr}}
@itemx @asis{-not @var{expr}}
@findex !
@findex -not
True if @var{expr} is false.

@item @asis{@var{expr1 expr2}}
@itemx @asis{@var{expr1} -a @var{expr2}}
@itemx @asis{@var{expr1} -and @var{expr2}}
@findex -a
@findex -and
And; @var{expr2} is not evaluated if @var{expr1} is false.

@item @asis{@var{expr1} -o @var{expr2}}
@itemx @asis{@var{expr1} -or @var{expr2}}
@findex -o
@findex -or
Or; @var{expr2} is not evaluated if @var{expr1} is true.

@item @asis{@var{expr1} , @var{expr2}}
@findex ,
List; both @var{expr1} and @var{expr2} are always evaluated.  True if
@var{expr2} is true.  The value of @var{expr1} is discarded.  This
operator lets you do multiple independent operations on one traversal,
without depending on whether other operations succeeded.  The two 
operations @var{expr1} and @var{expr2} are not always filly
independent, since @var{expr1} might have side effects like touching
or deleting files, or it might use @samp{-prune} which would also
affect @var{expr2}.
@end table

@code{find} searches the directory tree rooted at each file name by
evaluating the expression from left to right, according to the rules of
precedence, until the outcome is known (the left hand side is false for
@samp{-and}, true for @samp{-or}), at which point @code{find} moves on
to the next file name.

There are two other tests that can be useful in complex expressions:

@deffn Test -true
Always true.
@end deffn

@deffn Test -false
Always false.
@end deffn

@node Actions, Common Tasks, Finding Files, Top
@chapter Actions

There are several ways you can print information about the files that
match the criteria you gave in the @code{find} expression.  You can
print the information either to the standard output or to a file that
you name.  You can also execute commands that have the file names as
arguments.  You can use those commands as further filters to select files.

@menu
* Print File Name::
* Print File Information::
* Run Commands::
* Delete Files::
* Adding Tests::
@end menu

@node Print File Name
@section Print File Name

@deffn Action -print
True; print the full file name on the standard output, followed by a
newline.
@end deffn

@deffn Action -fprint file
True; print the full file name into file @var{file}, followed by a
newline.  If @var{file} does not exist when @code{find} is run, it is
created; if it does exist, it is truncated to 0 bytes.  The file names
@file{/dev/stdout} and @file{/dev/stderr} are handled specially; they
refer to the standard output and standard error output, respectively.
@end deffn

@node Print File Information
@section Print File Information

@deffn Action -ls
True; list the current file in @samp{ls -dils} format on the standard
output.  The output looks like this:

@smallexample
204744   17 -rw-r--r--   1 djm      staff       17337 Nov  2  1992 ./lwall-quotes
@end smallexample

The fields are:

@enumerate
@item
The inode number of the file.  @xref{Hard Links}, for how to find files
based on their inode number.

@item
the number of blocks in the file.  The block counts are of 1K blocks,
unless the environment variable @code{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is set, in which
case 512-byte blocks are used.  @xref{Size}, for how to find files based
on their size.

@item
The file's type and permissions.  The type is shown as a dash for a
regular file; for other file types, a letter like for @samp{-type} is
used (@pxref{Type}).  The permissions are read, write, and execute for
the file's owner, its group, and other users, respectively; a dash means
the permission is not granted.  @xref{File Permissions}, for more details
about file permissions.  @xref{Permissions}, for how to find files based
on their permissions.

@item
The number of hard links to the file.

@item
The user who owns the file.

@item
The file's group.

@item
The file's size in bytes.

@item
The date the file was last modified.

@item
The file's name.  @samp{-ls} quotes non-printable characters in the file
names using C-like backslash escapes.
@end enumerate
@end deffn

@deffn Action -fls file
True; like @samp{-ls} but write to @var{file} like @samp{-fprint}
(@pxref{Print File Name}).
@end deffn

@deffn Action -printf format
True; print @var{format} on the standard output, interpreting @samp{\}
escapes and @samp{%} directives.  Field widths and precisions can be
specified as with the @code{printf} C function.  Format flags (like
@samp{#} for example) may not work as you expect because many of the
fields, even numeric ones, are printed with %s.  This means though
that the format flag @samp{-} will work; it forces left-alignment of
the field.  Unlike @samp{-print}, @samp{-printf} does not add a
newline at the end of the string.  If you want a newline at the end of
the string, add a @samp{\n}.
@end deffn

@deffn Action -fprintf file format
True; like @samp{-printf} but write to @var{file} like @samp{-fprint}
(@pxref{Print File Name}).
@end deffn

@menu
* Escapes::
* Format Directives::
* Time Formats::
@end menu

@node Escapes
@subsection Escapes

The escapes that @samp{-printf} and @samp{-fprintf} recognize are:

@table @code
@item \a
Alarm bell.
@item \b
Backspace.
@item \c
Stop printing from this format immediately and flush the output.
@item \f
Form feed.
@item \n
Newline.
@item \r
Carriage return.
@item \t
Horizontal tab.
@item \v
Vertical tab.
@item \\
A literal backslash (@samp{\}).
@item \NNN
The character whose ASCII code is NNN (octal).
@end table

A @samp{\} character followed by any other character is treated as an
ordinary character, so they both are printed, and a warning message is
printed to the standard error output (because it was probably a typo).

@node Format Directives
@subsection Format Directives

@samp{-printf} and @samp{-fprintf} support the following format
directives to print information about the file being processed.  The C
@code{printf} function, field width and precision specifiers are
supported, as applied to string (%s) types. That is, you can specify
"minimum field width"."maximum field width" for each directive.
Format flags (like @samp{#} for example) may not work as you expect
because many of the fields, even numeric ones, are printed with %s.
The format flag @samp{-} does work; it forces left-alignment of the
field.

@samp{%%} is a literal percent sign.  A @samp{%} character followed by
an unrecognised character (i.e. not a known directive or printf field
width and precision specifier), is discarded (but the unrecognised character
is printed), and a warning message is printed to the standard error output
(because it was probably a typo).

@menu
* Name Directives::
* Ownership Directives::
* Size Directives::
* Location Directives::
* Time Directives::
* Formatting Flags::
@end menu

@node Name Directives
@subsubsection Name Directives

@table @code
@item %p
@c supports %-X.Yp
File's name (not the absolute path name, but the name of the file as
it was encountered by find - that is, as a relative path from one of
the starting points).
@item %f
File's name with any leading directories removed (only the last element).
@c supports %-X.Yf
@item %h
Leading directories of file's name (all but the last element and the
slash before it).
@c supports %-X.Yh
@item %P
File's name with the name of the command line argument under which
it was found removed from the beginning.
@c supports %-X.YP
@item %H
Command line argument under which file was found.
@c supports %-X.YH
@end table

@node Ownership Directives
@subsubsection Ownership Directives

@table @code
@item %g
@c supports %-X.Yg
File's group name, or numeric group ID if the group has no name.
@item %G
@c supports %-X.Yg
@c TODO: Needs to support # flag and 0 flag
File's numeric group ID.
@item %u
@c supports %-X.Yu
File's user name, or numeric user ID if the user has no name.
@item %U
@c supports %-X.Yu
@c TODO: Needs to support # flag
File's numeric user ID.
@item %m
@c full support, including # and 0.
File's permissions (in octal).   If you always want to have a leading
zero on the number, use the '#' format flag, for example '%#m'.
@end table

@node Size Directives
@subsubsection Size Directives

@table @code
@item %k
Amount of disk space occupied by the file, measured in 1K blocks
(rounded up).  This can be less than the length of the file if 
it is a sparse file (that is, it has ``holes'').  
@item %b
File's size in 512-byte blocks (rounded up).  This also can be less 
than the length of the file, if the file is sparse.
@item %s
File's size in bytes.
@end table

@node Location Directives
@subsubsection Location Directives

@table @code
@item %d
File's depth in the directory tree (depth below a file named on the
command line, not depth below the root directory).  Files named on the
command line have a depth of 0.  Subdirectories immediately below them
have a depth of 1, and so on.
@item %D
The device number on which the file exists (the @code{st_dev} field of
@code{struct stat}), in decimal.
@item %F
Type of the filesystem the file is on; this value can be used for
@samp{-fstype} (@pxref{Directories}).
@item %l
Object of symbolic link (empty string if file is not a symbolic link).
@item %i
File's inode number (in decimal).
@item %n
Number of hard links to file.
@item %y 
Type of the file as used with @samp{-type}.   If the file is a symbolic
link, @samp{l} will be printed.
@item %Y
Type of the file as used with @samp{-type}.   If the file is a symbolic
link, it is dereferenced.  If the file is a broken symbolic link,
@samp{N} is printed.

@end table

@node Time Directives
@subsubsection Time Directives

Some of these directives use the C @code{ctime} function.  Its output
depends on the current locale, but it typically looks like

@example
Wed Nov  2 00:42:36 1994
@end example

@table @code
@item %a
File's last access time in the format returned by the C @code{ctime} function.
@item %A@var{k}
File's last access time in the format specified by @var{k}
(@pxref{Time Formats}). 
@item %c
File's last status change time in the format returned by the C @code{ctime}
function.
@item %C@var{k}
File's last status change time in the format specified by @var{k}
(@pxref{Time Formats}).
@item %t
File's last modification time in the format returned by the C @code{ctime}
function.
@item %T@var{k}
File's last modification time in the format specified by @var{k} 
(@pxref{Time Formats}). 
@end table

@node Time Formats
@subsection Time Formats

Below are the formats for the directives @samp{%A}, @samp{%C}, and
@samp{%T}, which print the file's timestamps.  Some of these formats
might not be available on all systems, due to differences in the C
@code{strftime} function between systems.

@menu
* Time Components::
* Date Components::
* Combined Time Formats::
@end menu

@node Time Components
@subsubsection Time Components

The following format directives print single components of the time.

@table @code
@item H
hour (00..23)
@item I
hour (01..12)
@item k
hour ( 0..23)
@item l
hour ( 1..12)
@item p
locale's AM or PM
@item Z
time zone (e.g., EDT), or nothing if no time zone is determinable
@item M
minute (00..59)
@item S
second (00..61)
@item @@
seconds since Jan. 1, 1970, 00:00 GMT.
@end table

@node Date Components
@subsubsection Date Components

The following format directives print single components of the date.

@table @code
@item a
locale's abbreviated weekday name (Sun..Sat)
@item A
locale's full weekday name, variable length (Sunday..Saturday)
@item b
@itemx h
locale's abbreviated month name (Jan..Dec)
@item B
locale's full month name, variable length (January..December)
@item m
month (01..12)
@item d
day of month (01..31)
@item w
day of week (0..6)
@item j
day of year (001..366)
@item U
week number of year with Sunday as first day of week (00..53)
@item W
week number of year with Monday as first day of week (00..53)
@item Y
year (1970@dots{})
@item y
last two digits of year (00..99)
@end table

@node Combined Time Formats
@subsubsection Combined Time Formats

The following format directives print combinations of time and date
components. 

@table @code
@item r
time, 12-hour (hh:mm:ss [AP]M)
@item T
time, 24-hour (hh:mm:ss)
@item X
locale's time representation (H:M:S)
@item c
locale's date and time (Sat Nov 04 12:02:33 EST 1989)
@item D
date (mm/dd/yy)
@item x
locale's date representation (mm/dd/yy)
@item +
Date and time, separated by '+', for example `2004-04-28+22:22:05'.
The time is given in the current timezone (which may be affected by
setting the TZ environment variable).  This is a GNU extension.
@end table

@node Formatting Flags
@subsubsection Formatting Flags

The @samp{%m} and @samp{%d} directives support the @samp{#}, @samp{0}
and @samp{+} flags, but the other directives do not, even if they
print numbers.  Numeric directives that do not support these flags
include 

@samp{G},
@samp{U},
@samp{b},
@samp{D},
@samp{k} and
@samp{n}.

All fields support the format flag @samp{-}, which makes fields
left-aligned.  That is, if the field width is greater than the actual
contents of the field, the requisite number of spaces are printed
after the field content instead of before it.

@node Run Commands
@section Run Commands

You can use the list of file names created by @code{find} or
@code{locate} as arguments to other commands.  In this way you can
perform arbitrary actions on the files.

@menu
* Single File::
* Multiple Files::
* Querying::
@end menu

@node Single File
@subsection Single File

Here is how to run a command on one file at a time.

@deffn Action -exec command ;
Execute @var{command}; true if 0 status is returned.  @code{find} takes
all arguments after @samp{-exec} to be part of the command until an
argument consisting of @samp{;} is reached.  It replaces the string
@samp{@{@}} by the current file name being processed everywhere it
occurs in the command.  Both of these constructions need to be escaped
(with a @samp{\}) or quoted to protect them from expansion by the shell.
The command is executed in the directory in which @code{find} was run.

For example, to compare each C header file in the current directory with
the file @file{/tmp/master}:

@example
find . -name '*.h' -exec diff -u '@{@}' /tmp/master ';'
@end example
@end deffn


@deffn Action -exec command +
This variant of @samp{-exec} not yet supported.   Once it has been
implemented as specified in the POSIX standard, a @samp{@{@}} will expand to
a list of names of matching files.  This expansion is done in such a
way as to avoid exceeding the maximum command line length available on 
the system.
@end deffn


@node Multiple Files
@subsection Multiple Files

Sometimes you need to process files alone.  But when you
don't, it is faster to run a command on as many files as possible at a
time, rather than once per file.  Doing this saves on the time it takes
to start up the command each time.

To run a command on more than one file at once, use the @code{xargs}
command, which is invoked like this:

@example
xargs @r{[}@var{option}@dots{}@r{]} @r{[}@var{command} @r{[}@var{initial-arguments}@r{]}@r{]}
@end example

@code{xargs} normally reads arguments from the standard input.  These
arguments are delimited by blanks (which can be protected with double
or single quotes or a backslash) or newlines.  It executes the
@var{command} (default is @file{/bin/echo}) one or more times with any
@var{initial-arguments} followed by arguments read from standard
input.  Blank lines on the standard input are ignored.

Instead of blank-delimited names, it is safer to use @samp{find -print0}
or @samp{find -fprint0} and process the output by giving the @samp{-0}
or @samp{--null} option to GNU @code{xargs}, GNU @code{tar}, GNU
@code{cpio}, or @code{perl}.  The @code{locate} command also has a
@samp{-0} or @samp{--null} option which does the same thing.

You can use shell command substitution (backquotes) to process a list of
arguments, like this:

@example
grep -l sprintf `find $HOME -name '*.c' -print`
@end example

However, that method produces an error if the length of the @samp{.c}
file names exceeds the operating system's command-line length limit.
@code{xargs} avoids that problem by running the command as many times as
necessary without exceeding the limit:

@example
find $HOME -name '*.c' -print | xargs grep -l sprintf
@end example

However, if the command needs to have its standard input be a terminal
(@code{less}, for example), you have to use the shell command
substitution method or use the @samp{--arg-file} option of
@code{xargs}.

The @code{xargs} command will process all its input, building command
lines and executing them, unless one of the commands exits with a
status of 255 (this will cause xargs to issue an error message and
stop) or it reads a line contains the end of file string specified
with the @samp{--eof} option. 

@menu
* Unsafe File Name Handling::
* Safe File Name Handling::
* Limiting Command Size::
* Interspersing File Names::
@end menu

@node Unsafe File Name Handling
@subsubsection Unsafe File Name Handling

Because file names can contain quotes, backslashes, blank characters,
and even newlines, it is not safe to process them using @code{xargs} in its
default mode of operation.  But since most files' names do not contain
blanks, this problem occurs only infrequently.  If you are only
searching through files that you know have safe names, then you need not
be concerned about it.  

@c This example is adapted from:
@c From: pfalstad@stone.Princeton.EDU (Paul John Falstad)
@c Newsgroups: comp.unix.shell
@c Subject: Re: Beware xargs security holes
@c Date: 16 Oct 90 19:12:06 GMT
@c 
In many applications, if @code{xargs} botches processing a file because
its name contains special characters, some data might be lost.  The
importance of this problem depends on the importance of the data and
whether anyone notices the loss soon enough to correct it.  However,
here is an extreme example of the problems that using blank-delimited
names can cause.  If the following command is run daily from
@code{cron}, then any user can remove any file on the system:

@example
find / -name '#*' -atime +7 -print | xargs rm
@end example

For example, you could do something like this:

@example
eg$ echo > '#
vmunix'
@end example

@noindent
and then @code{cron} would delete @file{/vmunix}, if it ran
@code{xargs} with @file{/} as its current directory.

To delete other files, for example @file{/u/joeuser/.plan}, you could do
this:

@example
eg$ mkdir '#
'
eg$ cd '#
'
eg$ mkdir u u/joeuser u/joeuser/.plan'
'
eg$ echo > u/joeuser/.plan'
/#foo'
eg$ cd ..
eg$ find . -name '#*' -print | xargs echo
./# ./# /u/joeuser/.plan /#foo
@end example

@node Safe File Name Handling
@subsubsection Safe File Name Handling

Here is how to make @code{find} output file names so that they can be
used by other programs without being mangled or misinterpreted.  You can
process file names generated this way by giving the @samp{-0} or
@samp{--null} option to GNU @code{xargs}, GNU @code{tar}, GNU
@code{cpio}, or @code{perl}.

@deffn Action -print0
True; print the full file name on the standard output, followed by a
null character.
@end deffn

@deffn Action -fprint0 file
True; like @samp{-print0} but write to @var{file} like @samp{-fprint}
(@pxref{Print File Name}).
@end deffn

As of findutils version 4.2.4, the @code{locate} program also has a
@samp{--null} option which does the same thing.  For similarity with
@code{xargs}, the short form of the option @samp{-0} can also be used.

If you want to be able to handle file names safely but need to run
commands which want to be connected to a terminal on their input, you
can use the @samp{--arg-file} option to @code{xargs} like this:

@example
find / -name xyzzy -print0 > list
xargs --null --arg-file=list munge
@end example

The example above runs the @code{munge} program on all the files named
@file{xyzzy} that we can find, but @code{munge}'s input will still be
the terminal (or whatever the shell was using as standard input).  If
your shell has the ``process substitution'' feature @samp{<(...)}, you
can do this in just one step:

@example
xargs --null --arg-file=<(find / -name xyzzy -print0) munge
@end example

@node Limiting Command Size
@subsubsection Limiting Command Size

@code{xargs} gives you control over how many arguments it passes to the
command each time it executes it.  By default, it uses up to
@code{ARG_MAX} - 2k, or 128k, whichever is smaller, characters per
command.  It uses as many lines and arguments as fit within that limit.
The following options modify those values.

@table @code
@item --no-run-if-empty
@itemx -r
If the standard input does not contain any nonblanks, do not run the
command.  By default, the command is run once even if there is no input.

@item --max-lines@r{[}=@var{max-lines}@r{]}
@itemx -l@r{[}@var{max-lines}@r{]}
Use at most @var{max-lines} nonblank input lines per command line;
@var{max-lines} defaults to 1 if omitted.  Trailing blanks cause an
input line to be logically continued on the next input line, for the
purpose of counting the lines.  Implies @samp{-x}.

@item --max-args=@var{max-args}
@itemx -n @var{max-args}
Use at most @var{max-args} arguments per command line.  Fewer than
@var{max-args} arguments will be used if the size (see the @samp{-s}
option) is exceeded, unless the @samp{-x} option is given, in which case
@code{xargs} will exit.

@item --max-chars=@var{max-chars}
@itemx -s @var{max-chars}
Use at most @var{max-chars} characters per command line, including the
command and initial arguments and the terminating nulls at the ends of
the argument strings.  If you specify a value for this option which is
too large or small, a warning message is printed and the appropriate
upper or lower limit is used instead.

@item --max-procs=@var{max-procs}
@itemx -P @var{max-procs}
Run up to @var{max-procs} processes at a time; the default is 1.  If
@var{max-procs} is 0, @code{xargs} will run as many processes as
possible at a time.  Use the @samp{-n}, @samp{-s}, or @samp{-l} option
with @samp{-P}; otherwise chances are that the command will be run only
once.
@end table

@node Interspersing File Names
@subsubsection Interspersing File Names

@code{xargs} can insert the name of the file it is processing between
arguments you give for the command.  Unless you also give options to
limit the command size (@pxref{Limiting Command Size}), this mode of
operation is equivalent to @samp{find -exec} (@pxref{Single File}).

@table @code
@item --replace@r{[}=@var{replace-str}@r{]}
@itemx -i@r{[}@var{replace-str}@r{]}
Replace occurrences of @var{replace-str} in the initial arguments with
names read from the input.  Also, unquoted blanks do not
terminate arguments; instead, the input is split at newlines only.  If
@var{replace-str} is omitted, it defaults to @samp{@{@}} (like for
@samp{find -exec}).  Implies @samp{-x} and @samp{-l 1}.  As an
example, to sort each file the @file{bills} directory, leaving the
output in that file name with @file{.sorted} appended, you could do:

@example
find bills -type f | xargs -iXX sort -o XX.sorted XX
@end example

@noindent
The equivalent command using @samp{find -exec} is:

@example
find bills -type f -exec sort -o '@{@}.sorted' '@{@}' ';'
@end example
@end table

@node Querying
@subsection Querying

To ask the user whether to execute a command on a single file, you can
use the @code{find} primary @samp{-ok} instead of @samp{-exec}:

@deffn Action -ok command ;
Like @samp{-exec} (@pxref{Single File}), but ask the user first (on
the standard input); if the response does not start with @samp{y} or
@samp{Y}, do not run the command, and return false.
@end deffn

When processing multiple files with a single command, to query the user
you give @code{xargs} the following option.  When using this option, you
might find it useful to control the number of files processed per
invocation of the command (@pxref{Limiting Command Size}).

@table @code
@item --interactive
@itemx -p
Prompt the user about whether to run each command line and read a line
from the terminal.  Only run the command line if the response starts
with @samp{y} or @samp{Y}.  Implies @samp{-t}.
@end table

@node Delete Files
@section Delete Files

@deffn Action -delete
Delete files or directories; true if removal succeeded.  If the
removal failed, an error message is issued.

The use of the @samp{-delete} action on the command line automatically
turns on the @samp{-depth} option (@pxref{find Expressions}).
@end deffn

@node Adding Tests
@section Adding Tests

You can test for file attributes that none of the @code{find} builtin
tests check.  To do this, use @code{xargs} to run a program that filters
a list of files printed by @code{find}.  If possible, use @code{find}
builtin tests to pare down the list, so the program run by @code{xargs}
has less work to do.  The tests builtin to @code{find} will likely run
faster than tests that other programs perform.

For example, here is a way to print the names of all of the unstripped
binaries in the @file{/usr/local} directory tree.  Builtin tests avoid
running @code{file} on files that are not regular files or are not
executable.

@example
find /usr/local -type f -perm +a=x | xargs file | 
  grep 'not stripped' | cut -d: -f1
@end example

@noindent
The @code{cut} program removes everything after the file name from the
output of @code{file}.

@c Idea from Martin Weitzel.
If you want to place a special test somewhere in the middle of a
@code{find} expression, you can use @samp{-exec} to run a program that
performs the test.  Because @samp{-exec} evaluates to the exit status of
the executed program, you can write a program (which can be a shell
script) that tests for a special attribute and make it exit with a true
(zero) or false (non-zero) status.  It is a good idea to place such a
special test @emph{after} the builtin tests, because it starts a new
process which could be avoided if a builtin test evaluates to false.
Use this method only when @code{xargs} is not flexible enough, because
starting one or more new processes to test each file is slower than
using @code{xargs} to start one process that tests many files.

Here is a shell script called @code{unstripped} that checks whether its
argument is an unstripped binary file:

@example
#! /bin/sh
file $1 | grep 'not stripped' > /dev/null
@end example

This script relies on the fact that the shell exits with the status of
the last program it executed, in this case @code{grep}.  @code{grep}
exits with a true status if it found any matches, false if not.  Here is
an example of using the script (assuming it is in your search path).  It
lists the stripped executables in the file @file{sbins} and the
unstripped ones in @file{ubins}.

@example
find /usr/local -type f -perm +a=x \
  \( -exec unstripped '@{@}' \; -fprint ubins -o -fprint sbins \)
@end example

@node Common Tasks, Databases, Actions, Top
@chapter Common Tasks

The sections that follow contain some extended examples that both give a
good idea of the power of these programs, and show you how to solve
common real-world problems.

@menu
* Viewing And Editing::
* Archiving::
* Cleaning Up::
* Strange File Names::
* Fixing Permissions::
* Classifying Files::
@end menu

@node Viewing And Editing
@section Viewing And Editing

To view a list of files that meet certain criteria, simply run your file
viewing program with the file names as arguments.  Shells substitute a
command enclosed in backquotes with its output, so the whole command
looks like this:

@example
less `find /usr/include -name '*.h' | xargs grep -l mode_t`
@end example

@noindent
You can edit those files by giving an editor name instead of a file
viewing program:

@example
emacs `find /usr/include -name '*.h' | xargs grep -l mode_t`
@end example

Because there is a limit to the length of any individual command line,
there is a limit to the number of files that can be handled in this
way.  We can get around this difficulty by using xargs like this:

@example
find /usr/include -name '*.h' | xargs grep -l mode_t > todo
xargs --arg-file=todo emacs
@end example

Here, @code{xargs} will run @code{emacs} as many times as necessary to
visit all of the files listed in the file @file{todo}.

@node Archiving
@section Archiving

You can pass a list of files produced by @code{find} to a file archiving
program.  GNU @code{tar} and @code{cpio} can both read lists of file
names from the standard input---either delimited by nulls (the safe way)
or by blanks (the lazy, risky default way).  To use null-delimited
names, give them the @samp{--null} option.  You can store a file archive
in a file, write it on a tape, or send it over a network to extract on
another machine.

One common use of @code{find} to archive files is to send a list of the
files in a directory tree to @code{cpio}.  Use @samp{-depth} so if a
directory does not have write permission for its owner, its contents can
still be restored from the archive since the directory's permissions are
restored after its contents.  Here is an example of doing this using
@code{cpio}; you could use a more complex @code{find} expression to
archive only certain files.

@example
find . -depth -print0 |
  cpio --create --null --format=crc --file=/dev/nrst0
@end example

You could restore that archive using this command:

@example
cpio --extract --null --make-dir --unconditional \
  --preserve --file=/dev/nrst0
@end example

Here are the commands to do the same things using @code{tar}:

@example
find . -depth -print0 |
  tar --create --null --files-from=- --file=/dev/nrst0

tar --extract --null --preserve-perm --same-owner \
  --file=/dev/nrst0
@end example

@c Idea from Rick Sladkey.
Here is an example of copying a directory from one machine to another:

@example
find . -depth -print0 | cpio -0o -Hnewc |
  rsh @var{other-machine} "cd `pwd` && cpio -i0dum"
@end example

@node Cleaning Up
@section Cleaning Up

@c Idea from Jim Meyering.
This section gives examples of removing unwanted files in various situations.
Here is a command to remove the CVS backup files created when an update
requires a merge:

@example
find . -name '.#*' -print0 | xargs -0r rm -f
@end example

The command above works, but the following is safer:

@example
find . -name '.#*' -depth -delete
@end example

@c Idea from Franc,ois Pinard.
You can run this command to clean out your clutter in @file{/tmp}.  You
might place it in the file your shell runs when you log out
(@file{.bash_logout}, @file{.logout}, or @file{.zlogout}, depending on
which shell you use).

@example
find /tmp -depth -user "$LOGNAME" -type f -delete 
@end example

If your @code{find} command removes directories, you may find that 
you get a spurious error message when @code{find} tries to recurse
into a directory that has now been removed.  Using the @samp{-depth}
option will normally resolve this problem.

@c Idea from Noah Friedman.
To remove old Emacs backup and auto-save files, you can use a command
like the following.  It is especially important in this case to use
null-terminated file names because Emacs packages like the VM mailer
often create temporary file names with spaces in them, like @file{#reply
to David J. MacKenzie<1>#}.

@example
find ~ \( -name '*~' -o -name '#*#' \) -print0 |
  xargs --no-run-if-empty --null rm -vf
@end example

Removing old files from @file{/tmp} is commonly done from @code{cron}:

@c Idea from Kaveh Ghazi.
@example
find /tmp /var/tmp -not -type d -mtime +3 -delete
find /tmp /var/tmp -depth -mindepth 1 -type d -empty -delete
@end example

The second @code{find} command above uses @samp{-depth} so it cleans out
empty directories depth-first, hoping that the parents become empty and
can be removed too.  It uses @samp{-mindepth} to avoid removing
@file{/tmp} itself if it becomes totally empty.

@node Strange File Names
@section Strange File Names

@c Idea from:
@c From: tmatimar@isgtec.com (Ted Timar)
@c Newsgroups: comp.unix.questions,comp.unix.shell,comp.answers,news.answers
@c Subject: Unix - Frequently Asked Questions (2/7) [Frequent posting]
@c Subject: How do I remove a file with funny characters in the filename ?
@c Date: Thu Mar 18 17:16:55 EST 1993
@code{find} can help you remove or rename a file with strange characters
in its name.  People are sometimes stymied by files whose names contain
characters such as spaces, tabs, control characters, or characters with
the high bit set.  The simplest way to remove such files is:

@example
rm -i @var{some*pattern*that*matches*the*problem*file}
@end example

@code{rm} asks you whether to remove each file matching the given
pattern.  If you are using an old shell, this approach might not work if
the file name contains a character with the high bit set; the shell may
strip it off.  A more reliable way is:

@example
find . -maxdepth 1 @var{tests} -ok rm '@{@}' \;
@end example

@noindent
where @var{tests} uniquely identify the file.  The @samp{-maxdepth 1}
option prevents @code{find} from wasting time searching for the file in
any subdirectories; if there are no subdirectories, you may omit it.  A
good way to uniquely identify the problem file is to figure out its
inode number; use

@example
ls -i
@end example

Suppose you have a file whose name contains control characters, and you
have found that its inode number is 12345.  This command prompts you for
whether to remove it:

@example
find . -maxdepth 1 -inum 12345 -ok rm -f '@{@}' \;
@end example

If you don't want to be asked, perhaps because the file name may contain
a strange character sequence that will mess up your screen when printed,
then use @samp{-exec} instead of @samp{-ok}.

If you want to rename the file instead, you can use @code{mv} instead of
@code{rm}:

@example
find . -maxdepth 1 -inum 12345 -ok mv '@{@}' @var{new-file-name} \;
@end example

@node Fixing Permissions
@section Fixing Permissions

Suppose you want to make sure that everyone can write to the directories in a
certain directory tree.  Here is a way to find directories lacking either
user or group write permission (or both), and fix their permissions:

@example
find . -type d -not -perm -ug=w | xargs chmod ug+w
@end example

@noindent
You could also reverse the operations, if you want to make sure that
directories do @emph{not} have world write permission.

@node Classifying Files
@section Classifying Files

@c Idea from:
@c From: martin@mwtech.UUCP (Martin Weitzel)
@c Newsgroups: comp.unix.wizards,comp.unix.questions
@c Subject: Advanced usage of 'find' (Re: Unix security automating script)
@c Date: 22 Mar 90 15:05:19 GMT
If you want to classify a set of files into several groups based on
different criteria, you can use the comma operator to perform multiple
independent tests on the files.  Here is an example:

@example
find / -type d \( -perm -o=w -fprint allwrite , \
  -perm -o=x -fprint allexec \)

echo "Directories that can be written to by everyone:"
cat allwrite
echo ""
echo "Directories with search permissions for everyone:"
cat allexec
@end example

@code{find} has only to make one scan through the directory tree (which
is one of the most time consuming parts of its work).

@node Databases, File Permissions, Common Tasks, Top
@chapter File Name Databases

The file name databases used by @code{locate} contain lists of files
that were in particular directory trees when the databases were last
updated.  The file name of the default database is determined when
@code{locate} and @code{updatedb} are configured and installed.  The
frequency with which the databases are updated and the directories for
which they contain entries depend on how often @code{updatedb} is run,
and with which arguments.

You can obtain some statistics about the databases by using
@samp{locate --statistics}.

@menu
* Database Locations::
* Database Formats::
* Newline Handling::
@end menu


@node Database Locations
@section Database Locations

There can be multiple file name databases.  Users can select which
databases @code{locate} searches using the @code{LOCATE_PATH}
environment variable or a command line option.  The system
administrator can choose the file name of the default database, the
frequency with which the databases are updated, and the directories
for which they contain entries.  File name databases are updated by
running the @code{updatedb} program, typically nightly.

In networked environments, it often makes sense to build a database at
the root of each filesystem, containing the entries for that filesystem.
@code{updatedb} is then run for each filesystem on the fileserver where
that filesystem is on a local disk, to prevent thrashing the network.

@xref{Invoking updatedb},
for the description of the options to @code{updatedb}, which specify
which directories would each database contain entries for.


@node Database Formats
@section Database Formats

The file name databases contain lists of files that were in particular
directory trees when the databases were last updated.  The file name
database format changed starting with GNU @code{locate} version 4.0 to
allow machines with different byte orderings to share the databases.  The
new GNU @code{locate} can read both the old and new database formats.
However, old versions of @code{locate} and @code{find} produce incorrect
results if given a new-format database.

If you run @samp{locate --statistics}, the resulting summary indicates
the type of each locate database.  


@menu
* New Database Format::
* Sample Database::
* Old Database Format::
@end menu

@node New Database Format
@subsection New Database Format

@code{updatedb} runs a program called @code{frcode} to
@dfn{front-compress} the list of file names, which reduces the database
size by a factor of 4 to 5.  Front-compression (also known as
incremental encoding) works as follows.

The database entries are a sorted list (case-insensitively, for users'
convenience).  Since the list is sorted, each entry is likely to share a
prefix (initial string) with the previous entry.  Each database entry
begins with an offset-differential count byte, which is the additional
number of characters of prefix of the preceding entry to use beyond the
number that the preceding entry is using of its predecessor.  (The
counts can be negative.)  Following the count is a null-terminated ASCII
remainder---the part of the name that follows the shared prefix.

If the offset-differential count is larger than can be stored in a byte
(+/-127), the byte has the value 0x80 and the count follows in a 2-byte
word, with the high byte first (network byte order).

Every database begins with a dummy entry for a file called
@file{LOCATE02}, which @code{locate} checks for to ensure that the
database file has the correct format; it ignores the entry in doing the
search.

Databases can not be concatenated together, even if the first (dummy)
entry is trimmed from all but the first database.  This is because the
offset-differential count in the first entry of the second and following
databases will be wrong.

In the ouptut of @samp{locate --statistics}, the new database format
is referred to as @samp{LOCATE02}.

@node Sample Database
@subsection Sample Database

Sample input to @code{frcode}:
@c with nulls changed to newlines:

@example
/usr/src
/usr/src/cmd/aardvark.c
/usr/src/cmd/armadillo.c
/usr/tmp/zoo
@end example

Length of the longest prefix of the preceding entry to share:

@example
0 /usr/src
8 /cmd/aardvark.c
14 rmadillo.c
5 tmp/zoo
@end example

Output from @code{frcode}, with trailing nulls changed to newlines
and count bytes made printable:

@example
0 LOCATE02
0 /usr/src
8 /cmd/aardvark.c
6 rmadillo.c
-9 tmp/zoo
@end example

(6 = 14 - 8, and -9 = 5 - 14)

@node Old Database Format
@subsection Old Database Format

The old database format is used by Unix @code{locate} and @code{find}
programs and earlier releases of the GNU ones.  @code{updatedb} produces
this format if given the @samp{--old-format} option.

@code{updatedb} runs programs called @code{bigram} and @code{code} to
produce old-format databases.  The old format differs from the new one
in the following ways.  Instead of each entry starting with an
offset-differential count byte and ending with a null, byte values from
0 through 28 indicate offset-differential counts from -14 through 14.
The byte value indicating that a long offset-differential count follows
is 0x1e (30), not 0x80.  The long counts are stored in host byte order,
which is not necessarily network byte order, and host integer word size,
which is usually 4 bytes.  They also represent a count 14 less than
their value.  The database lines have no termination byte; the start of
the next line is indicated by its first byte having a value <= 30.

In addition, instead of starting with a dummy entry, the old database
format starts with a 256 byte table containing the 128 most common
bigrams in the file list.  A bigram is a pair of adjacent bytes.  Bytes
in the database that have the high bit set are indexes (with the high
bit cleared) into the bigram table.  The bigram and offset-differential
count coding makes these databases 20-25% smaller than the new format,
but makes them not 8-bit clean.  Any byte in a file name that is in the
ranges used for the special codes is replaced in the database by a
question mark, which not coincidentally is the shell wildcard to match a
single character.

The old format therefore can not faithfully store entries with non-ASCII
characters. It therefore should not be used in internationalized
environments.

The output of @samp{locate --statistics} will give an incorrect count
of the number of filenames containing newlines or high-bit characters
for old-format databases.

@node Newline Handling
@section Newline Handling

Within the database, filenames are terminated with a null character.
This is the case for both the old and the new format.  

When the new database format is being used, the compression technique
used to generate the database though relies on the ability to sort the
list of files before they are presented to @code{frcode}.

If the system's sort command allows its input list of files to be
separated with null characters via the @samp{-z} option, this option
is used and therefore @code{updatedb} and @code{locate} will both
correctly handle filenames containing newlines.  If the @code{sort}
command lacks support for this, the list of files is delimited with
the newline character, meaning that parts of filenames containing
newlines will be incorrectly sorted.  This can result in both
incorrect matches and incorrect failures to match.

On the other hand, if you are using the old database format, filenames
with embedded newlines are not correctly handled.  There is no
technical limitation which enforces this, it's just that the
@code{bigram} program has no been updated to support lists of
filenames separated by nulls.

So, if you are using the new database format (this is the default) and
your system uses GNU @code{find}, newlines will be correctly handled
at all times.  Otherwise, newlines may not be correctly handled.

@node File Permissions, Reference, Databases, Top
@chapter File Permissions

@include perm.texi

@node Reference, Security Considerations, File Permissions, Top
@chapter Reference

Below are summaries of the command line syntax for the programs
discussed in this manual.

@menu
* Invoking find::
* Invoking locate::
* Invoking updatedb::
* Invoking xargs::
@end menu

@node Invoking find, Invoking locate, , Reference
@section Invoking @code{find}

@example
find @r{[-H] [-L] [-P]} @r{[}@var{file}@dots{}@r{]} @r{[}@var{expression}@r{]}
@end example

@code{find} searches the directory tree rooted at each file name
@var{file} by evaluating the @var{expression} on each file it finds in
the tree.

The options @samp{-H}, @samp{-L} or @samp{-P} may be specified at the
start of the command line (if none of these is specified, @samp{-P} is
assumed).  The arguments after these are a list of files or
directories that should be searched.

This list of files to search is followed by a list of expressions
describing the files we wish to search for.  The first part of the
expression is recognised by the fact that it begins with @samp{-},
@samp{(}, @samp{)}, @samp{,}, or @samp{!}.  Any arguments after it are
the rest of the expression.  If no paths are given, the current
directory is used.  If no expression is given, the expression
@samp{-print} is used.

@code{find} exits with status 0 if all files are processed successfully,
greater than 0 if errors occur.

Three options can precede the list of path names.  They determine the
way that symbolic links are handled.

@table @code
@item -P
Never follow symbolic links (this is the default), except in the case
of the @samp{-xtype} predicate.
@item -L
Always follow symbolic links, except in the case of the @samp{-xtype}
predicate.
@item -H
Follow symbolic links specified in the list of paths to search, or
which are otherwise specified on the command line.
@end table

If @code{find} would follow a symbolic link, but cannot for any reason
(for example, because it has insufficient permissions or the link is
broken), it falls back on using the properties of the symbolic link
itself.  @ref{Symbolic Links} for a more complete description of how
symbolic links are handled.

@xref{Primary Index}, for a summary of all of the tests, actions, and
options that the expression can contain.  If the expression is
missing, @samp{-print} is assumed.



@code{find} also recognizes two options for administrative use:

@table @code
@item --help
Print a summary of the command-line argument format and exit.
@item --version
Print the version number of @code{find} and exit.
@end table


@menu
* Warning Messages::
@end menu


@node Warning Messages,,, Invoking find
@subsection Warning Messages

If there is an error on the @code{find} command line, an error message
is normally issued.  However, there are some usages that are
inadvisable but which @code{find} should still accept.  Under these
circumstances, @code{find} may issue a warning message.  By default,
warnings are enabled only if @code{find} is being run interactively
(specifically, if the standard input is a terminal).  Warning messages
can be controlled explicitly by the use of options on the command
line:

@table @code
@item -warn
Issue warning messages where appropriate.
@item -nowarn
Do not issue warning messages.
@end table

These options take effect at the point on the command line where they
are specified.  Therefore if you specify @samp{-nowarn} at the end of
the command line, you will not see warning messages for any problems
occurring before that.  The warning messages affected by the above
options are triggered by:

@itemize @minus
@item
Use of the @samp{-d} option which is deprecated; please use
@samp{-depth} instead, since the latter is POSIX-compliant.
@item
Use of the @samp{-ipath} option which is deprecated; please use
@samp{-iwholename} instead.
@item 
Specifying an option (for example @samp{-mindepth}) after a non-option
(for example @samp{-type} or @samp{-print}) on the command line.
@end itemize


The default behaviour above is designed to work in that way so that
existing shell scripts which use such constructs don't generate
spurious errors, but people will be made aware of the problem.

Some warning messages are issued for less common or more serious
problems, and so cannot be turned off:

@itemize @minus
@item
Use of an unrecognised backslash escape sequence with @samp{-fprintf}
@item
Use of an unrecognised formatting directive with @samp{-fprintf}
@end itemize

@node Invoking locate, Invoking updatedb, Invoking find, Reference
@section Invoking @code{locate}

@example
locate @r{[}@var{option}@dots{}@r{]} @var{pattern}@dots{}
@end example

@table @code
@item --database=@var{path}
@itemx -d @var{path}
Instead of searching the default file name database, search the file
name databases in @var{path}, which is a colon-separated list of
database file names.  You can also use the environment variable
@code{LOCATE_PATH} to set the list of database files to search.  The
option overrides the environment variable if both are used.

@item --existing
@itemx -e
Only print out such names which currently exist (instead of such names
which existed when the database was created).
Note that this may slow down the program a lot, if there are many matches
in the database.

@item --ignore-case
@itemx -i
Ignore case distinctions in both the pattern and the file names.

@item --null
@itemx -0
Results are separated with the ASCII NUL character rather than the
newline character.  To get the full benefit of the use of this option,
use the new locate database format (that is the default anyway).

@item --count
@itemx -c
Just print the number of results, not the results themselves.

@item --limit=N
@itemx -l N
Limit the number of results printed to N.  If you use the
@samp{--count} option, the value printed will never be larger than
this limit.

@item --wholename
The specified pattern is matched against the whole name of the file in
the locate database.  If the pattern contains metacharacters, it must
match exactly.  If not, it must match part of the whole file name.
This is the default behaviour.

@item --basename
The specified pattern is matched against just the last component of
the name of the file in the locate database.  This last component is
also called the ``base name''.  For example, the base name of
@file{/tmp/mystuff/foo.old.c} is @file{foo.old.c}.  If the pattern
contains metacharacters, it must match exactly.  If not, it must match
part of the whole file name.

@item --statistics
Print some summary information for each locate database.  No search is
performed. 

@item --help
Print a summary of the options to @code{locate} and exit.

@item --version
Print the version number of @code{locate} and exit.
@end table

@node Invoking updatedb, Invoking xargs, Invoking locate, Reference
@section Invoking @code{updatedb}

@example
updatedb @r{[}@var{option}@dots{}@r{]}
@end example

@table @code
@item --findoptions='@var{OPTION}@dots{}'
Global options to pass on to @code{find}.
The environment variable @code{FINDOPTIONS} also sets this value.
Default is none.

@item --localpaths='@var{path}@dots{}'
Non-network directories to put in the database.
Default is @file{/}.

@item --netpaths='@var{path}@dots{}'
Network (NFS, AFS, RFS, etc.) directories to put in the database.
The environment variable @code{NETPATHS} also sets this value.
Default is none.

@item --prunepaths='@var{path}@dots{}'
Directories to omit from the database, which would otherwise be included.
The environment variable @code{PRUNEPATHS} also sets this value.
Default is @file{/tmp /usr/tmp /var/tmp /afs}.

@item --prunefs='@var{path}@dots{}'
File systems to omit from the database, which would otherwise be included.
Note that files are pruned when a file system is reached;
Any file system mounted under an undesired file system will be
ignored.
The environment variable @code{PRUNEFS} also sets this value.
Default is @file{nfs NFS proc}.

@item --output=@var{dbfile}
The database file to build.
Default is system-dependent, but typically @file{/usr/local/var/locatedb}.

@item --localuser=@var{user}
The user to search the non-network directories as, using @code{su}.
Default is to search the non-network directories as the current user.
You can also use the environment variable @code{LOCALUSER} to set this user.

@item --netuser=@var{user}
The user to search network directories as, using @code{su}.
Default is @code{daemon}.
You can also use the environment variable @code{NETUSER} to set this user.

@item --old-format
Generate a locate database in the old format, for compatibility with
versions of @code{locate} other than GNU @code{locate}.  Using this
option means that @code{locate} will not be able to properly handle
non-ASCII characters in filenames (that is, filenames containing
characters which have the eighth bit set, such as many of the
characters from the ISO-8859-1 character set).
@item --help
Print a summary of the command-line argument format and exit.
@item --version
Print the version number of @code{updatedb} and exit.
@end table

@node Invoking xargs, ,  Invoking updatedb, Reference
@section Invoking @code{xargs}

@example
xargs @r{[}@var{option}@dots{}@r{]} @r{[}@var{command} @r{[}@var{initial-arguments}@r{]}@r{]}
@end example

@code{xargs} exits with the following status:

@table @asis
@item 0
if it succeeds
@item 123
if any invocation of the command exited with status 1-125
@item 124
if the command exited with status 255
@item 125
if the command is killed by a signal
@item 126
if the command cannot be run
@item 127
if the command is not found
@item 1
if some other error occurred.
@end table

@table @code
@item --arg-file@r{=@var{inputfile}}
@itemx -a @r{=@var{inputfile}}
Read names from the file @var{inputfile} instead of standard input.

@item --null
@itemx -0
Input filenames are terminated by a null character instead of by
whitespace, and the quotes and backslash are not special (every
character is taken literally).  Disables the end of file string, which
is treated like any other argument.

@item --eof@r{[}=@var{eof-str}@r{]}
@itemx -e@r{[}@var{eof-str}@r{]}
Set the end of file string to @var{eof-str}.  If the end of file string
occurs as a line of input, the rest of the input is ignored.  If
@var{eof-str} is omitted, there is no end of file string.  If this
option is not given, the end of file string defaults to @samp{_}.

@item --help
Print a summary of the options to @code{xargs} and exit.

@item --replace@r{[}=@var{replace-str}@r{]}
@itemx -i@r{[}@var{replace-str}@r{]}
Replace occurrences of @var{replace-str} in the initial arguments with
names read from standard input.  Also, unquoted blanks do not
terminate arguments; instead, the input is split at newlines only.
If @var{replace-str} is omitted, it defaults to @samp{@{@}}
(like for @samp{find -exec}).  Implies @samp{-x} and @samp{-l 1}.

@item --max-lines@r{[}=@var{max-lines}@r{]}
@itemx -l@r{[}@var{max-lines}@r{]}
Use at most @var{max-lines} nonblank input lines per command line;
@var{max-lines} defaults to 1 if omitted.  Trailing blanks cause an
input line to be logically continued on the next input line, for the
purpose of counting the lines.  Implies @samp{-x}.

@item --max-args=@var{max-args}
@itemx -n @var{max-args}
Use at most @var{max-args} arguments per command line.  Fewer than
@var{max-args} arguments will be used if the size (see the @samp{-s}
option) is exceeded, unless the @samp{-x} option is given, in which case
@code{xargs} will exit.

@item --interactive
@itemx -p
Prompt the user about whether to run each command line and read a line
from the terminal.  Only run the command line if the response starts
with @samp{y} or @samp{Y}.  Implies @samp{-t}.

@item --no-run-if-empty
@itemx -r
If the standard input does not contain any nonblanks, do not run the
command.  By default, the command is run once even if there is no input.

@item --max-chars=@var{max-chars}
@itemx -s @var{max-chars}
Use at most @var{max-chars} characters per command line, including the
command and initial arguments and the terminating nulls at the ends of
the argument strings.

@item --verbose
@itemx -t
Print the command line on the standard error output before executing
it.

@item --version
Print the version number of @code{xargs} and exit.

@item --exit
@itemx -x
Exit if the size (see the @samp{-s} option) is exceeded.


@item --max-procs=@var{max-procs}
@itemx -P @var{max-procs}
Run up to @var{max-procs} processes at a time; the default is 1.  If
@var{max-procs} is 0, @code{xargs} will run as many processes as
possible at a time.
@end table

@node Security Considerations, Error Messages, Reference, Top
@chapter Security Considerations

Security considerations are important if you are using @code{find} or
@code{xargs} to search for or process files that don't belong to you
or over which other people have control.  Security considerations
relating to @code{locate} may also apply if you have files which you
may not want others to see.   

In general, the most severe forms of security problems affecting
@code{find} and related programs are where third parties can bring
about a situation where those programs allow them to do something
they would normally not be able to do.  This is called @emph{privilege
elevation}.  This might include deleting files they would not normally
be able to delete.  It is also common for the system to periodically
invoke @code{find} for housekeeping purposes.  These invocations of
@code{find} are particularly problematic from a security point of view
as these are often invoked by the superuser and search the whole file
system hierarchy.  The severity of any associated problem depends on
what the system is going to do with the output of @code{find}.

@menu
* Levels of Risk::      What is your level of exposure to security problems?
* Security Considerations for find::  Security problems with find
* Security Considerations for xargs:: Security problems with xargs
* Security Considerations for locate:: Security problems with locate
* Security Summary:: That was all very complex, what does it boil down to?
@end menu


@node Levels of Risk
@section Levels of Risk

There are some security risks inherent in the use of @code{find},
@code{xargs} and (to a lesser extent) @code{locate}.  The severity of
these risks depends on what sort of system you are using:

@table @strong
@item High risk
Multi-user systems where you do not control (or trust) the other
users, and on which you execute @code{find}, including areas where
those other users can manipulate the filesystem (for example beneath
@file{/home} or @file{/tmp}).

@item Medium Risk
Systems where the actions of other users can create filenames chosen
by them, but to which they don't have access while @code{find} is
being run.  This access might include leaving programs running (shell
background jobs, @code{at} or @code{cron} tasks, for example).  On
these sorts of systems, carefully written commands (avoiding use of
@samp{-print} for example) should not expose you to a high degree of
risk.  Most systems fall into this category.

@item Low Risk
Systems to which untrusted parties do not have access, cannot create
filenames of their own choice (even remotely) and which contain no
security flaws which might enable an untrusted third party to gain
access.  Most systems do not fall into this category because there are
many ways in which external parties can affect the names of files that
are created on your system.  The system on which I am writing this for
example automatically downloads software updates from the Internet;
the names of the files in which these updates exist are chosen by
third parties@footnote{Of course, I trust these parties to a large
extent anyway, because I install software provided by them; I choose
to trust them in this way, and that's a deliberate choice}.
@end table

In the discussion above, ``risk'' denotes the likelihood that someone
can cause @code{find}, @code{xargs}, @code{locate} or some other
program which is controlled by them to do something you did not
intend.  The levels of risk suggested do not take any account of the
consequences of this sort of event.  That is, if you operate a ``low
risk'' type system, but the consequences of a security problem are
disastrous, then you should still give serious thought to all the
possible security problems, many of which of course will not be
discussed here -- this section of the manual is intended to be
informative but not comprehensive or exhaustive.   

If you are responsible for the operation of a system where the
consequences of a security problem could be very important, you should
do two things:-

@enumerate
@item Define a security policy which defines who is allowed to do what
on your system
@item Seek competent advice on how to enforce your policy, detect
breaches of that policy, and take account of any potential problems
that might fall outside the scope of your policy
@end enumerate


@node Security Considerations for find
@section Security Considerations for find


Some of the actions @code{find} might take have a direct effect;
these include @code{-exec} and @code{-delete}.  However, it is also
common to use @code{-print} explicitly or implicitly, and so if
@code{find} produces the wrong list of filenames, that can also be a
security problem; consider the case for example where @code{find} is
producing a list of files to be deleted.

We normally assume that the @code{find} command line expresses the
file selection criteria and actions that the user had in mind -- that
is, the command line is ``trusted'' data.  

From a security analysis point of view, the output of @code{find}
should be correct; that is, the output should contain only the names
of those files which meet the user's criteria specified on the command
line.  This applies for the @code{-exec} and @code{-delete} actions;
one can consider these to be part of the output.

On the other hand, the contents of the filesystem can be manipulated
by other people, and hence we regard this as ``untrusted'' data.  This
implies that the @code{find} command line is a filter which converts
the untrusted contents of the filesystem into a correct list of output
files.   

The filesystem will in general change while @code{find} is searching
it; in fact, most of the potential security problems with @code{find}
relate to this issue in some way.

@subsection Race Conditions
Race conditions are a general class of security problem where the
relative ordering of actions taken by @code{find} (for example) and
something else are important@footnote{This is more or less the
definition of the term ``race condition''} .  

Typically, an attacker might move or rename files or directories in
the hope that an action might be taken against a a file which was not
normally intended to be affected.  Alternatively, this sort of attack
might be intended to persuade @code{find} to search part of the
filesystem which would not normally be included in the search
(defeating the @code{-prune} action for example).  

@subsubsection Changing the Current Working Directory
As find searches the file system, it finds subdirectories and then
searches within them by changing its working directory.    First,
@code{find} notices a subdirectory.  It then decides if that
subdirectory meets the criteria for being searched; that is, any
@samp{-xdev} or @samp{-prune} expressions are taken into account.  The
@code{find} program will then change working directory using the
@code{chdir()} system call and proceed to search the directory.  

A race condition attack might take the form that once the checks
relevant to @samp{-xdev} and @samp{-prune} have been done, an attacker
might rename the directory that was being considered, and put in its
place a symbolic link that actually points somewhere else.  The
@code{find} command would then issue the @code{chdir()} system call,
changing its working directory to the destination of the symbolic link
(@code{chdir()} will always dereference symbolic links).  This
manipulation leaves @code{find} with a working directory chosen by an
attacker, bypassing any protection apparently provided by @samp{-xdev}
and @samp{-prune}, and any protection provided by being able to
@emph{not} list particular directories on the @code{find} command
line.  This form of attack is particularly problematic if the attacker
can predict when the @code{find} command will be run, as is the case
with @code{cron} tasks for example.  

GNU @code{find} has specific safeguards to prevent this general class
of problem.  Each time @code{find} changes directory, it examines the
directory it is about to move to, issues the @code{chdir()} system
call, and then checks that it has ended up in the subdirectory it
expected.  If not, an error message is issued and @code{find} exits
immediately.  This prevents filesystem manipulation attacks from
persuading @code{find} to search parts of the filesystem it did not
intend.

Where an automounter is in use, it can be the case that the use of the
@code{chdir()} system call can itself cause a new filesystem to be
mounted at that point.  This will cause @code{find}'s security check
to fail.  However, this does not normally represent a security problem
(since the automounter configuration is normally set up by the system
administrator).  Therefore, if the @code{chdir()} sanity check fails,
@code{find} will check to see if a new filesystem has been mounted at
the current directory; if so, @code{find} will issue a warning message
and continue.  


@subsubsection Race Conditions with -exec

The @samp{-exec} action causes another program to be run.  It is
passed the name of the file which is being considered at the time.
The invoked program will then - normally - perform some action on that
file.  Once again, there is a race condition which can be exploited
here.  We shall take as a specific example the command

@example 
find /tmp -path /tmp/umsp/passwd -exec /bin/rm
@end example

In this simple example, we are identifying just one file to be deleted
and invoking @code{/bin/rm} to delete it.  A problem exists because
there is a time gap between the point where @code{find} decides that
it needs to process the @samp{-exec} action and the point where the
@code{/bin/rm} command actually issues the @code{unlink()} system
call.  Within this time period, an attacker can rename the
@file{/tmp/umsp} directory, replacing it with a symbolic link to
@file{/etc}.   There is no way for @code{/bin/rm} to determine that it
is working on the same file that @code{find} had in mind.   Once the
symbolic link is in place, the attacker has persuaded @code{find} to
cause the deletion of the @file{/etc/passwd} file, which is not the
effect intended by the command which was actually invoked.  

One possible defence against this type of attack is to modify the
behaviour of @samp{-exec} so that the @code{/bin/rm} command is run
with the argument @file{./passwd} and a suitable choice of working
directory.  This would allow the normal sanity check that @code{find}
performs to protect against this form of attack too.  Unfortunately,
this strategy cannot be used as the POSIX standard specifies that the
current working directory for commands invoked via @samp{-exec} must
be the same as the current working directory from which @code{find}
was invoked.   This means that the @samp{-exec} action is inherently
insecure and can't be fixed.   

GNU @code{find} implements a more secure variant of the @samp{-exec}
action, @samp{-execdir}@footnote{at the time of writing -execdir is
not yet implemented, but is planned}.  The @samp{-execdir} action
ensures that it is not necessary to dereference subdirectories to
process target files.  The current directory used to invoke programs
is the same as the directory in which the file to be processed exists
(@file{/tmp/umsp} in our example, and only the basename of the file to
be processed is passed to the invoked command, with a @samp{./}
prepended (giving @file{./passwd} in our example).


@subsubsection Race Conditions with -print and -print0

The @samp{-print} and @samp{-print0} actions can be used to produce a
list of files matching some criteria, which can then be used with some
other command, perhaps with @code{xargs}.   Unfortunately, this means
that there is an unavoidable time gap between @code{find} deciding
that one or more files meet its criteria and the relevant command
being executed.  For this reason, the @samp{-print} and @samp{-print0}
actions are just as insecure as @samp{-exec}.

In fact, since the construction 

@example
find ....   -print | xargs ....
@end example

does not cope correctly with newlines or other ``white space'' in
filenames, and copes poorly with filenames containing quotes, the
@samp{-print} action is less secure even than @samp{-print0}.


@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@comment @node Security Considerations for xargs
@node Security Considerations for xargs
@section Security Considerations for @code{xargs}

The description of the race conditions affecting the @samp{-print}
action of @code{find} shows that @code{xargs} cannot be secure if it
is possible for an attacker to modify a filesystem after @code{find}
has started but before @code{xargs} has completed all its actions.

However, there are other security issues that exist even if it is not
possible for an attacker to have access to the filesystem in real
time.  Firstly, if it is possible for an attacker to create files with
names of their own choice on the filesystem, then @code{xargs} is
insecure unless the @samp{-0} option is used.  If a file with the name
@file{/home/someuser/foo/bar\n/etc/passwd} exists (assume that
@samp{\n} stands for a newline character), then @code{find ... -print}
can be persuaded to print three separate lines:

@example
/home/someuser/foo/bar

/etc/passwd
@end example

If it finds a blank line in the input, @code{xargs} will ignore it.
Therefore, if some action is to be taken on the basis of this list of
files, the @file{/etc/passwd} file would be included even if this was
not the intent of the person running find.  There are circumstances in
which an attacker can use this to their advantage.  The same
consideration applies to filenames containing ordinary spaces rather
than newlines, except that of course the list of filenames will no
longer contain an ``extra'' newline.

This problem is an unavoidable consequence of the default behaviour of
the @code{xargs} command, which is specified by the POSIX standard.
The only ways to avoid this problem are either to avoid all use of
@code{xargs} in favour for example of @samp{find -exec} or (where
available) @samp{find -execdir}, or to use the @samp{-0} option, which
ensures that @code{xargs} considers filenames to be separated by ASCII
NUL characters rather than whitespace.   However, useful though this
option is, the POSIX standard does not make it mandatory.

@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@node Security Considerations for locate
@section Security Considerations for @code{locate}

It is fairly unusual for the output of @code{locate} to be fed into
another command.  However, if this were to be done, this would raise
the same set of security issues as the use of @samp{find ... -print}.
Although the problems relating to whitespace in filenames can be
resolved by using @code{locate}'s @samp{-0} option, this still leaves
the race condition problems associated with @samp{find ... -print0}.
There is no way to avoid these problems in the case of @code{locate}.

@node Security Summary
@section Summary

Where untrusted parties can create files on the system, or affect the
names of files that are created, all uses for @code{find},
@code{locate} and @code{xargs} have known security problems except the
following:

@table @asis
@item Informational use only
Uses where the programs are used to prepare lists of filenames upon which no further action will ever be taken.

@item -delete 
Use of the @samp{-delete} action to delete files which meet
specified criteria

@item -execdir 
Use of the @samp{-execdir} action where the @env{PATH}
environment variable contains directories which contain only trusted
programs. 
@end table

Please note that the @samp{-execdir} option is not yet implemented.


@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@node Error Messages, Primary Index, Security Considerations, Top
@chapter Error Messages

This section describes some of the error messages you might get from
@code{find}, @code{xargs}, or @code{locate}, explains them and in some
cases provides advice as to what you should do about this.

This manual is written in English.  The GNU findutils software
features translated error messages for many languages.  For this
reason where possible we try to make the error messages produced by
the programs self-explanatory.  This approach avoids asking people to
figure out which English-language error message the test they actually
saw might correspond to. Error messages which are self-explanatory
will not normally be described or discussed in this document.  For
those messages which are discussed in this document, only the
English-language version of the message will be listed.

@menu
* Error Messages From find::
* Error Messages From xargs::
* Error Messages From locate::
* Error Messages From updatedb::
@end menu

@node Error Messages From find, Error Messages From xargs, , Error Messages
@section Error Messages From find

@table @samp
@item invalid predicate `-foo'
This means that the @code{find} command line included something that
started with a dash or other special character.  The @code{find}
program tried to interpret this as a test, action or option, but
didn't recognise it.  If you intended it to be a test, check what you
specified against the documentation.  If, on the other hand, the
string is the name of a file which has been expanded from a wildcard
(for example because you have a @samp{*} on the command line),
consider using @samp{./*} or just @samp{.} instead.

@item unexpected extra predicate
This usually happens if you have an extra bracket on the command line
(for example @samp{find . -print \)}).

@item Warning: filesystem /path/foo has recently been mounted
@itemx Warning: filesystem /path/foo has recently been unmounted
These messages might appear when @code{find} moves into a directory
and finds that the device number and inode are different to what it
expected them to be.  If the directory @code{find} has moved into is
on an NFS filesystem, it will not issue this message, because
@code{automount} frequently mounts new filesystems on directories as
you move into them (that is how it knows you want to use the
filesystem).  So, if you do see this message, be wary --
@code{automount} may not have been responsible.  Consider the
possibility that someone else is manipulating the filesystem while
@code{find} is running.  Some people might do this in order to mislead
@code{find} or persuade it to look at one set of files when it thought
it was looking at another set.

@item /path/foo changed during execution of find (old device number 12345, new device number 6789, filesystem type is <whatever>) [ref XXX]
This message is issued when @code{find} changes directory and ends up
somewhere it didn't expect to be.  This happens in one of two
circumstances.  Firstly this happens when ``automount'' does its thing
on a system where @code{find} doesn't know how to determine what the
current set of mounted filesystems is@footnote{To do this, @code{find}
requires to be able to use @code{getmntent()} - check the
@file{config.h} file for HAVE_GETMNTENT, which should be #defined to
1.  If HAVE_GETMNTENT is not set, consider submitting a problem report
to @email{bug-findutils@@gnu.org}, because @code{find} needs to be
able to figure out how to enumerate the mounted devices on your
system}.

Secondly, this can happen when the device number of a directory
appears to change during a change of current directory, but
@code{find} is moving up the filesystem hierarchy rather than down it.
In order to prevent @code{find} wandering off into some unexpected
part of the filesystem, we stop it at this point.

@item Don't know how to use getmntent() to read `/etc/mtab'.  This is a bug.
This message is issued when a problem similar to the above occurs on a
system where @code{find} doesn't know how to figure out the current
list of mount points.  Ask for help on @email{bug-findutils@@gnu.org}.

@item /path/foo/bar changed during execution of find (old inode number 12345, new inode number 67893, filesystem type is <whatever>) [ref XXX]"),
This message is issued when @code{find} changes directory and
discovers that the inode number of that directory once it's got there
is different to the inode number that it obtained when it examined the
directory some time previously.  This normally means that while
@code{find} has been deep in a directory hierarchy doing something
time consuming, somebody has moved the one of the parent directories
to another location in the same filesystem.  This may have been done
maliciously, or may not.  In any case, @code{find} stops at this point
in order to avoid traversing parts of the filesystem that it wasn't
intended to.  You can use @code{ls -li} or @code{find /path -inum
12345 -o -inum 67893} to find out more about what has happened.

@item sanity check of the fnmatch() library function failed.
Please submit a bug report.  You may well be asked questions about
your system, and if you compiled the @code{findutils} code yourself,
you should keep your copy of the build tree around.  The likely
explanation is that your system has a buggy implementation of
@code{fnmatch} that looks enough like the GNU version to fool
@code{configure}, but which doesn't work properly.

@item cannot fork
This normally happens if you use the @code{-exec} action or a
something similar (@code{-ok} and so forth) but the system has run out
of free process slots.  This is either because the system is very busy
and the system has reached its maximum process limit, or because you
have a resource limit in place and you've reached it.  Check the
system for runaway processes (if @code{ps} still works).  Some process
slots are normally reserved for use by @samp{root}.

@item some-program terminated by signal 99
Some program which was launched via @code{-exec} or similar was killed
with a fatal signal.  This is just an advisory message.
@end table



@node Error Messages From xargs, Error Messages From locate, Error Messages From find, Error Messages
@section Error Messages From xargs

@table @samp
@item environment is too large for exec
This message means that you have so many environment variables set
(or such large values for them) that there is no room within the
system-imposed limits on program command-line argument length to
invoke any program.  I'm sure you did this deliberately.  Please try
unsetting some environment variables, or exiting the current shell.

@item can not fit single argument within argument list size limit
You are using the @samp{-i} option and @code{xargs} doesn't have
enough space to build a command line because it has read in a really
large item and it doesn't fit.  You can probably work around this
problem with the @samp{-s} option, but the default size is pretty
large.  You must be trying pretty hard to break @code{xargs}.

@item cannot fork
See the description of the similar message for @code{find}.

@item <program>: exited with status 255; aborting
When a command run by @code{xargs} exits with status 255, @code{xargs}
is supposed to stop.  If this is not what you intended, wrap the
program you are trying to invoke in a shell script which doesn't
return status 255.

@item <program>: terminated by signal 99
See the description of the similar message for @code{find}.
@end table

@node Error Messages From locate, Error Messages From updatedb, Error Messages From xargs, Error Messages
@section Error Messages From locate

@table @samp
@item warning: database `/usr/local/var/locatedb' is more than 8 days old
The @code{locate} program relies on a database which is periodically
built by the @code{updatedb} program.  That hasn't happened in a long
time.  To fix this problem, run @code{updatedb} manually.  This can
often happen on systems that are generally not left on, so the periodic
``cron'' task which normally does this doesn't get a chance to run.

@item locate database `/usr/local/var/locatedb' is corrupt or invalid
This should not happen.  Re-run @code{updatedb}.  If that works, but
@code{locate} still produces this error, run @code{locate --version}
and @code{updatedb --version}.  These should produce the same output.
If not, you are using a mixed toolset; check your @samp{$PATH}
environment variable and your shell aliases (if you have any).  If
both programs claim to be GNU versions, this is a bug; all versions of
these programs should interoperate without problem.  Ask for help on
@email{bug-findutils@@gnu.org}.
@end table


@node Error Messages From updatedb, , Error Messages From locate, Error Messages
@section Error Messages From updatedb

The @code{updatedb} program (and the programs it invokes) do issue
error messages, but none of them seem to me to be candidates for
guidance.  If you are having a problem understanding one of these, ask
for help on @email{bug-findutils@@gnu.org}.

@node Primary Index, , Error Messages, Top
@unnumbered @code{find} Primary Index

This is a list of all of the primaries (tests, actions, and options)
that make up @code{find} expressions for selecting files.  @xref{find
Expressions}, for more information on expressions.

@printindex fn

@contents
@bye

@comment Accept some transatlantic usage - original manual written by
@comment an American.
@comment LocalWords: behavior optimize recognize recognizes 
@comment LocalWords: internationalized
@comment Accept some neologisms...
@comment LocalWords: builtin automount automounter toolset unsetting

@comment texi related words used by Emacs' spell checker ispell.el
@comment LocalWords: texinfo setfilename settitle setchapternewpage
@comment LocalWords: iftex finalout ifinfo DIR titlepage vskip pt
@comment LocalWords: filll dir samp dfn noindent xref pxref
@comment LocalWords: var deffn texi deffnx itemx emph asis
@comment LocalWords: findex smallexample subsubsection cindex
@comment LocalWords: dircategory direntry itemize

@comment other words used by Emacs' spell checker ispell.el
@comment LocalWords: README fred updatedb xargs Plett Rendell akefile
@comment LocalWords: args grep Filesystems fo foo fOo wildcards iname
@comment LocalWords: ipath regex iregex expr fubar regexps findutils
@comment LocalWords: metacharacters macs sr sc inode lname ilname
@comment LocalWords: sysdep noleaf ls inum xdev filesystems usr atime
@comment LocalWords: ctime mtime amin cmin mmin al daystart Sladkey rm
@comment LocalWords: anewer cnewer bckw rf xtype uname gname uid gid
@comment LocalWords: nouser nogroup chown chgrp perm ch maxdepth
@comment LocalWords: mindepth cpio src CD AFS statted stat fstype ufs
@comment LocalWords: nfs tmp mfs printf fprint dils rw djm Nov lwall
@comment LocalWords: POSIXLY fls fprintf strftime locale's EDT GMT AP
@comment LocalWords: EST diff perl backquotes sprintf Falstad Oct cron
@comment LocalWords: eg vmunix mkdir afs allexec allwrite ARG bigram
@comment LocalWords: bigrams cd chmod comp crc CVS dbfile dum eof
@comment LocalWords: fileserver filesystem fn frcode Ghazi Hnewc iXX
@comment LocalWords: joeuser Kaveh localpaths localuser LOGNAME
@comment LocalWords: Meyering mv netpaths netuser nonblank nonblanks
@comment LocalWords: ois ok Pinard printindex proc procs prunefs
@comment LocalWords: prunepaths pwd RFS rmadillo rmdir rsh sbins str
@comment LocalWords: su Timar ubins ug unstripped vf VM Weitzel Youngman
@comment LocalWords: wildcard zlogout basename execdir wholename iwholename
@comment LocalWords: timestamp timestamps Solaris FreeBSD OpenBSD POSIX