2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990-1995, 1998-1999, 2001-2012 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
5 @node Lists, Sequences Arrays Vectors, Strings and Characters, Top
8 @cindex element (of list)
10 A @dfn{list} represents a sequence of zero or more elements (which may
11 be any Lisp objects). The important difference between lists and
12 vectors is that two or more lists can share part of their structure; in
13 addition, you can insert or delete elements in a list without copying
17 * Cons Cells:: How lists are made out of cons cells.
18 * List-related Predicates:: Is this object a list? Comparing two lists.
19 * List Elements:: Extracting the pieces of a list.
20 * Building Lists:: Creating list structure.
21 * List Variables:: Modifying lists stored in variables.
22 * Modifying Lists:: Storing new pieces into an existing list.
23 * Sets And Lists:: A list can represent a finite mathematical set.
24 * Association Lists:: A list can represent a finite relation or mapping.
28 @section Lists and Cons Cells
29 @cindex lists and cons cells
31 Lists in Lisp are not a primitive data type; they are built up from
32 @dfn{cons cells} (@pxref{Cons Cell Type}). A cons cell is a data
33 object that represents an ordered pair. That is, it has two slots,
34 and each slot @dfn{holds}, or @dfn{refers to}, some Lisp object. One
35 slot is known as the @sc{car}, and the other is known as the @sc{cdr}.
36 (These names are traditional; see @ref{Cons Cell Type}.) @sc{cdr} is
37 pronounced ``could-er''.
39 We say that ``the @sc{car} of this cons cell is'' whatever object
40 its @sc{car} slot currently holds, and likewise for the @sc{cdr}.
42 A list is a series of cons cells ``chained together'', so that each
43 cell refers to the next one. There is one cons cell for each element
44 of the list. By convention, the @sc{car}s of the cons cells hold the
45 elements of the list, and the @sc{cdr}s are used to chain the list
46 (this asymmetry between @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} is entirely a matter of
47 convention; at the level of cons cells, the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr}
48 slots have similar properties). Hence, the @sc{cdr} slot of each cons
49 cell in a list refers to the following cons cell.
52 Also by convention, the @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell in a list is
53 @code{nil}. We call such a @code{nil}-terminated structure a
54 @dfn{true list}. In Emacs Lisp, the symbol @code{nil} is both a
55 symbol and a list with no elements. For convenience, the symbol
56 @code{nil} is considered to have @code{nil} as its @sc{cdr} (and also
59 Hence, the @sc{cdr} of a true list is always a true list. The
60 @sc{cdr} of a nonempty true list is a true list containing all the
61 elements except the first.
65 If the @sc{cdr} of a list's last cons cell is some value other than
66 @code{nil}, we call the structure a @dfn{dotted list}, since its
67 printed representation would use dotted pair notation (@pxref{Dotted
68 Pair Notation}). There is one other possibility: some cons cell's
69 @sc{cdr} could point to one of the previous cons cells in the list.
70 We call that structure a @dfn{circular list}.
72 For some purposes, it does not matter whether a list is true,
73 circular or dotted. If a program doesn't look far enough down the
74 list to see the @sc{cdr} of the final cons cell, it won't care.
75 However, some functions that operate on lists demand true lists and
76 signal errors if given a dotted list. Most functions that try to find
77 the end of a list enter infinite loops if given a circular list.
79 @cindex list structure
80 Because most cons cells are used as part of lists, we refer to any
81 structure made out of cons cells as a @dfn{list structure}.
83 @node List-related Predicates
84 @section Predicates on Lists
86 The following predicates test whether a Lisp object is an atom,
87 whether it is a cons cell or is a list, or whether it is the
88 distinguished object @code{nil}. (Many of these predicates can be
89 defined in terms of the others, but they are used so often that it is
90 worth having all of them.)
93 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil}
94 otherwise. @code{nil} is not a cons cell, although it @emph{is} a list.
98 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is an atom, @code{nil}
99 otherwise. All objects except cons cells are atoms. The symbol
100 @code{nil} is an atom and is also a list; it is the only Lisp object
104 (atom @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (consp @var{object}))
109 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell or
110 @code{nil}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}.
125 This function is the opposite of @code{listp}: it returns @code{t} if
126 @var{object} is not a list. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}.
129 (listp @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (nlistp @var{object}))
134 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is @code{nil}, and
135 returns @code{nil} otherwise. This function is identical to @code{not},
136 but as a matter of clarity we use @code{null} when @var{object} is
137 considered a list and @code{not} when it is considered a truth value
138 (see @code{not} in @ref{Combining Conditions}).
154 @section Accessing Elements of Lists
155 @cindex list elements
158 This function returns the value referred to by the first slot of the
159 cons cell @var{cons-cell}. In other words, it returns the @sc{car} of
162 As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, this function
163 returns @code{nil}. Therefore, any list is a valid argument. An
164 error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell or @code{nil}.
179 This function returns the value referred to by the second slot of the
180 cons cell @var{cons-cell}. In other words, it returns the @sc{cdr} of
183 As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, this function
184 returns @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument. An error
185 is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell or @code{nil}.
199 @defun car-safe object
200 This function lets you take the @sc{car} of a cons cell while avoiding
201 errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{car} of @var{object} if
202 @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. This is in contrast
203 to @code{car}, which signals an error if @var{object} is not a list.
207 (car-safe @var{object})
209 (let ((x @var{object}))
217 @defun cdr-safe object
218 This function lets you take the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell while
219 avoiding errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{cdr} of
220 @var{object} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise.
221 This is in contrast to @code{cdr}, which signals an error if
222 @var{object} is not a list.
226 (cdr-safe @var{object})
228 (let ((x @var{object}))
237 This macro is a way of examining the @sc{car} of a list,
238 and taking it off the list, all at once.
240 It operates on the list which is stored in the symbol @var{listname}.
241 It removes this element from the list by setting @var{listname}
242 to the @sc{cdr} of its old value---but it also returns the @sc{car}
243 of that list, which is the element being removed.
255 For the @code{pop} macro, which removes an element from a list,
256 @xref{List Variables}.
260 @anchor{Definition of nth}
261 This function returns the @var{n}th element of @var{list}. Elements
262 are numbered starting with zero, so the @sc{car} of @var{list} is
263 element number zero. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less,
264 the value is @code{nil}.
266 If @var{n} is negative, @code{nth} returns the first element of
282 (nth n x) @equiv{} (car (nthcdr n x))
286 The function @code{elt} is similar, but applies to any kind of sequence.
287 For historical reasons, it takes its arguments in the opposite order.
288 @xref{Sequence Functions}.
292 This function returns the @var{n}th @sc{cdr} of @var{list}. In other
293 words, it skips past the first @var{n} links of @var{list} and returns
296 If @var{n} is zero or negative, @code{nthcdr} returns all of
297 @var{list}. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less,
298 @code{nthcdr} returns @code{nil}.
302 (nthcdr 1 '(1 2 3 4))
306 (nthcdr 10 '(1 2 3 4))
310 (nthcdr -3 '(1 2 3 4))
316 @defun last list &optional n
317 This function returns the last link of @var{list}. The @code{car} of
318 this link is the list's last element. If @var{list} is null,
319 @code{nil} is returned. If @var{n} is non-@code{nil}, the
320 @var{n}th-to-last link is returned instead, or the whole of @var{list}
321 if @var{n} is bigger than @var{list}'s length.
324 @defun safe-length list
325 @anchor{Definition of safe-length}
326 This function returns the length of @var{list}, with no risk of either
327 an error or an infinite loop. It generally returns the number of
328 distinct cons cells in the list. However, for circular lists,
329 the value is just an upper bound; it is often too large.
331 If @var{list} is not @code{nil} or a cons cell, @code{safe-length}
335 The most common way to compute the length of a list, when you are not
336 worried that it may be circular, is with @code{length}. @xref{Sequence
339 @defun caar cons-cell
340 This is the same as @code{(car (car @var{cons-cell}))}.
343 @defun cadr cons-cell
344 This is the same as @code{(car (cdr @var{cons-cell}))}
345 or @code{(nth 1 @var{cons-cell})}.
348 @defun cdar cons-cell
349 This is the same as @code{(cdr (car @var{cons-cell}))}.
352 @defun cddr cons-cell
353 This is the same as @code{(cdr (cdr @var{cons-cell}))}
354 or @code{(nthcdr 2 @var{cons-cell})}.
357 @defun butlast x &optional n
358 This function returns the list @var{x} with the last element,
359 or the last @var{n} elements, removed. If @var{n} is greater
360 than zero it makes a copy of the list so as not to damage the
361 original list. In general, @code{(append (butlast @var{x} @var{n})
362 (last @var{x} @var{n}))} will return a list equal to @var{x}.
365 @defun nbutlast x &optional n
366 This is a version of @code{butlast} that works by destructively
367 modifying the @code{cdr} of the appropriate element, rather than
368 making a copy of the list.
372 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
373 @section Building Cons Cells and Lists
375 @cindex building lists
377 Many functions build lists, as lists reside at the very heart of Lisp.
378 @code{cons} is the fundamental list-building function; however, it is
379 interesting to note that @code{list} is used more times in the source
380 code for Emacs than @code{cons}.
382 @defun cons object1 object2
383 This function is the most basic function for building new list
384 structure. It creates a new cons cell, making @var{object1} the
385 @sc{car}, and @var{object2} the @sc{cdr}. It then returns the new
386 cons cell. The arguments @var{object1} and @var{object2} may be any
387 Lisp objects, but most often @var{object2} is a list.
405 @code{cons} is often used to add a single element to the front of a
406 list. This is called @dfn{consing the element onto the list}.
407 @footnote{There is no strictly equivalent way to add an element to
408 the end of a list. You can use @code{(append @var{listname} (list
409 @var{newelt}))}, which creates a whole new list by copying @var{listname}
410 and adding @var{newelt} to its end. Or you can use @code{(nconc
411 @var{listname} (list @var{newelt}))}, which modifies @var{listname}
412 by following all the @sc{cdr}s and then replacing the terminating
413 @code{nil}. Compare this to adding an element to the beginning of a
414 list with @code{cons}, which neither copies nor modifies the list.}
418 (setq list (cons newelt list))
421 Note that there is no conflict between the variable named @code{list}
422 used in this example and the function named @code{list} described below;
423 any symbol can serve both purposes.
426 @defun list &rest objects
427 This function creates a list with @var{objects} as its elements. The
428 resulting list is always @code{nil}-terminated. If no @var{objects}
429 are given, the empty list is returned.
434 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5)
437 (list 1 2 '(3 4 5) 'foo)
438 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5) foo)
447 @defun make-list length object
448 This function creates a list of @var{length} elements, in which each
449 element is @var{object}. Compare @code{make-list} with
450 @code{make-string} (@pxref{Creating Strings}).
455 @result{} (pigs pigs pigs)
462 (setq l (make-list 3 '(a b)))
463 @result{} ((a b) (a b) (a b))
464 (eq (car l) (cadr l))
470 @defun append &rest sequences
471 @cindex copying lists
472 This function returns a list containing all the elements of
473 @var{sequences}. The @var{sequences} may be lists, vectors,
474 bool-vectors, or strings, but the last one should usually be a list.
475 All arguments except the last one are copied, so none of the arguments
476 is altered. (See @code{nconc} in @ref{Rearrangement}, for a way to join
477 lists with no copying.)
479 More generally, the final argument to @code{append} may be any Lisp
480 object. The final argument is not copied or converted; it becomes the
481 @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell in the new list. If the final argument
482 is itself a list, then its elements become in effect elements of the
483 result list. If the final element is not a list, the result is a
484 dotted list since its final @sc{cdr} is not @code{nil} as required
488 Here is an example of using @code{append}:
492 (setq trees '(pine oak))
494 (setq more-trees (append '(maple birch) trees))
495 @result{} (maple birch pine oak)
502 @result{} (maple birch pine oak)
505 (eq trees (cdr (cdr more-trees)))
510 You can see how @code{append} works by looking at a box diagram. The
511 variable @code{trees} is set to the list @code{(pine oak)} and then the
512 variable @code{more-trees} is set to the list @code{(maple birch pine
513 oak)}. However, the variable @code{trees} continues to refer to the
520 | --- --- --- --- -> --- --- --- ---
521 --> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil
522 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
525 --> maple -->birch --> pine --> oak
529 An empty sequence contributes nothing to the value returned by
530 @code{append}. As a consequence of this, a final @code{nil} argument
531 forces a copy of the previous argument:
539 (setq wood (append trees nil))
553 This once was the usual way to copy a list, before the function
554 @code{copy-sequence} was invented. @xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}.
556 Here we show the use of vectors and strings as arguments to @code{append}:
560 (append [a b] "cd" nil)
561 @result{} (a b 99 100)
565 With the help of @code{apply} (@pxref{Calling Functions}), we can append
566 all the lists in a list of lists:
570 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil))
571 @result{} (a b c x y z)
575 If no @var{sequences} are given, @code{nil} is returned:
584 Here are some examples where the final argument is not a list:
590 @result{} (x y . [z])
594 The second example shows that when the final argument is a sequence but
595 not a list, the sequence's elements do not become elements of the
596 resulting list. Instead, the sequence becomes the final @sc{cdr}, like
597 any other non-list final argument.
600 This function creates a new list whose elements are the elements of
601 @var{list}, but in reverse order. The original argument @var{list} is
618 @defun copy-tree tree &optional vecp
619 This function returns a copy of the tree @code{tree}. If @var{tree} is a
620 cons cell, this makes a new cons cell with the same @sc{car} and
621 @sc{cdr}, then recursively copies the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} in the
624 Normally, when @var{tree} is anything other than a cons cell,
625 @code{copy-tree} simply returns @var{tree}. However, if @var{vecp} is
626 non-@code{nil}, it copies vectors too (and operates recursively on
630 @defun number-sequence from &optional to separation
631 This returns a list of numbers starting with @var{from} and
632 incrementing by @var{separation}, and ending at or just before
633 @var{to}. @var{separation} can be positive or negative and defaults
634 to 1. If @var{to} is @code{nil} or numerically equal to @var{from},
635 the value is the one-element list @code{(@var{from})}. If @var{to} is
636 less than @var{from} with a positive @var{separation}, or greater than
637 @var{from} with a negative @var{separation}, the value is @code{nil}
638 because those arguments specify an empty sequence.
640 If @var{separation} is 0 and @var{to} is neither @code{nil} nor
641 numerically equal to @var{from}, @code{number-sequence} signals an
642 error, since those arguments specify an infinite sequence.
644 All arguments can be integers or floating point numbers. However,
645 floating point arguments can be tricky, because floating point
646 arithmetic is inexact. For instance, depending on the machine, it may
647 quite well happen that @code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.6 0.2)} returns
648 the one element list @code{(0.4)}, whereas
649 @code{(number-sequence 0.4 0.8 0.2)} returns a list with three
650 elements. The @var{n}th element of the list is computed by the exact
651 formula @code{(+ @var{from} (* @var{n} @var{separation}))}. Thus, if
652 one wants to make sure that @var{to} is included in the list, one can
653 pass an expression of this exact type for @var{to}. Alternatively,
654 one can replace @var{to} with a slightly larger value (or a slightly
655 more negative value if @var{separation} is negative).
660 (number-sequence 4 9)
661 @result{} (4 5 6 7 8 9)
662 (number-sequence 9 4 -1)
663 @result{} (9 8 7 6 5 4)
664 (number-sequence 9 4 -2)
668 (number-sequence 8 5)
670 (number-sequence 5 8 -1)
672 (number-sequence 1.5 6 2)
673 @result{} (1.5 3.5 5.5)
678 @section Modifying List Variables
680 These functions, and one macro, provide convenient ways
681 to modify a list which is stored in a variable.
683 @defmac push newelt listname
684 This macro provides an alternative way to write
685 @code{(setq @var{listname} (cons @var{newelt} @var{listname}))}.
697 For the @code{pop} macro, which removes the first element from a list,
698 @xref{List Elements}.
701 Two functions modify lists that are the values of variables.
703 @defun add-to-list symbol element &optional append compare-fn
704 This function sets the variable @var{symbol} by consing @var{element}
705 onto the old value, if @var{element} is not already a member of that
706 value. It returns the resulting list, whether updated or not. The
707 value of @var{symbol} had better be a list already before the call.
708 @code{add-to-list} uses @var{compare-fn} to compare @var{element}
709 against existing list members; if @var{compare-fn} is @code{nil}, it
712 Normally, if @var{element} is added, it is added to the front of
713 @var{symbol}, but if the optional argument @var{append} is
714 non-@code{nil}, it is added at the end.
716 The argument @var{symbol} is not implicitly quoted; @code{add-to-list}
717 is an ordinary function, like @code{set} and unlike @code{setq}. Quote
718 the argument yourself if that is what you want.
721 Here's a scenario showing how to use @code{add-to-list}:
727 (add-to-list 'foo 'c) ;; @r{Add @code{c}.}
730 (add-to-list 'foo 'b) ;; @r{No effect.}
733 foo ;; @r{@code{foo} was changed.}
737 An equivalent expression for @code{(add-to-list '@var{var}
738 @var{value})} is this:
741 (or (member @var{value} @var{var})
742 (setq @var{var} (cons @var{value} @var{var})))
745 @defun add-to-ordered-list symbol element &optional order
746 This function sets the variable @var{symbol} by inserting
747 @var{element} into the old value, which must be a list, at the
748 position specified by @var{order}. If @var{element} is already a
749 member of the list, its position in the list is adjusted according
750 to @var{order}. Membership is tested using @code{eq}.
751 This function returns the resulting list, whether updated or not.
753 The @var{order} is typically a number (integer or float), and the
754 elements of the list are sorted in non-decreasing numerical order.
756 @var{order} may also be omitted or @code{nil}. Then the numeric order
757 of @var{element} stays unchanged if it already has one; otherwise,
758 @var{element} has no numeric order. Elements without a numeric list
759 order are placed at the end of the list, in no particular order.
761 Any other value for @var{order} removes the numeric order of @var{element}
762 if it already has one; otherwise, it is equivalent to @code{nil}.
764 The argument @var{symbol} is not implicitly quoted;
765 @code{add-to-ordered-list} is an ordinary function, like @code{set}
766 and unlike @code{setq}. Quote the argument yourself if that is what
769 The ordering information is stored in a hash table on @var{symbol}'s
770 @code{list-order} property.
773 Here's a scenario showing how to use @code{add-to-ordered-list}:
779 (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'a 1) ;; @r{Add @code{a}.}
782 (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'c 3) ;; @r{Add @code{c}.}
785 (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'b 2) ;; @r{Add @code{b}.}
788 (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'b 4) ;; @r{Move @code{b}.}
791 (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'd) ;; @r{Append @code{d}.}
794 (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'e) ;; @r{Add @code{e}}.
795 @result{} (a c b e d)
797 foo ;; @r{@code{foo} was changed.}
798 @result{} (a c b e d)
801 @node Modifying Lists
802 @section Modifying Existing List Structure
803 @cindex destructive list operations
805 You can modify the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} contents of a cons cell with the
806 primitives @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}. We call these ``destructive''
807 operations because they change existing list structure.
809 @cindex CL note---@code{rplaca} vs @code{setcar}
813 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp uses functions @code{rplaca} and
814 @code{rplacd} to alter list structure; they change structure the same
815 way as @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}, but the Common Lisp functions
816 return the cons cell while @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr} return the
817 new @sc{car} or @sc{cdr}.
821 * Setcar:: Replacing an element in a list.
822 * Setcdr:: Replacing part of the list backbone.
823 This can be used to remove or add elements.
824 * Rearrangement:: Reordering the elements in a list; combining lists.
828 @subsection Altering List Elements with @code{setcar}
830 Changing the @sc{car} of a cons cell is done with @code{setcar}. When
831 used on a list, @code{setcar} replaces one element of a list with a
834 @defun setcar cons object
835 This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{car} of @var{cons},
836 replacing its previous @sc{car}. In other words, it changes the
837 @sc{car} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the
838 value @var{object}. For example:
856 When a cons cell is part of the shared structure of several lists,
857 storing a new @sc{car} into the cons changes one element of each of
858 these lists. Here is an example:
862 ;; @r{Create two lists that are partly shared.}
865 (setq x2 (cons 'z (cdr x1)))
870 ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a shared link.}
871 (setcar (cdr x1) 'foo)
873 x1 ; @r{Both lists are changed.}
880 ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a link that is not shared.}
883 x1 ; @r{Only one list is changed.}
884 @result{} (baz foo c)
890 Here is a graphical depiction of the shared structure of the two lists
891 in the variables @code{x1} and @code{x2}, showing why replacing @code{b}
896 --- --- --- --- --- ---
897 x1---> | | |----> | | |--> | | |--> nil
898 --- --- --- --- --- ---
912 Here is an alternative form of box diagram, showing the same relationship:
917 -------------- -------------- --------------
918 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr |
919 | a | o------->| b | o------->| c | nil |
921 -------------- | -------------- --------------
933 @subsection Altering the CDR of a List
935 The lowest-level primitive for modifying a @sc{cdr} is @code{setcdr}:
937 @defun setcdr cons object
938 This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{cdr} of @var{cons},
939 replacing its previous @sc{cdr}. In other words, it changes the
940 @sc{cdr} slot of @var{cons} to refer to @var{object}. It returns the
944 Here is an example of replacing the @sc{cdr} of a list with a
945 different list. All but the first element of the list are removed in
946 favor of a different sequence of elements. The first element is
947 unchanged, because it resides in the @sc{car} of the list, and is not
948 reached via the @sc{cdr}.
965 You can delete elements from the middle of a list by altering the
966 @sc{cdr}s of the cons cells in the list. For example, here we delete
967 the second element, @code{b}, from the list @code{(a b c)}, by changing
968 the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell:
974 (setcdr x1 (cdr (cdr x1)))
981 Here is the result in box notation:
987 -------------- | -------------- | --------------
988 | car | cdr | | | car | cdr | -->| car | cdr |
989 | a | o----- | b | o-------->| c | nil |
991 -------------- -------------- --------------
996 The second cons cell, which previously held the element @code{b}, still
997 exists and its @sc{car} is still @code{b}, but it no longer forms part
1000 It is equally easy to insert a new element by changing @sc{cdr}s:
1006 (setcdr x1 (cons 'd (cdr x1)))
1013 Here is this result in box notation:
1017 -------------- ------------- -------------
1018 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr |
1019 | a | o | -->| b | o------->| c | nil |
1020 | | | | | | | | | | |
1021 --------- | -- | ------------- -------------
1034 @subsection Functions that Rearrange Lists
1035 @cindex rearrangement of lists
1036 @cindex modification of lists
1038 Here are some functions that rearrange lists ``destructively'' by
1039 modifying the @sc{cdr}s of their component cons cells. We call these
1040 functions ``destructive'' because they chew up the original lists passed
1041 to them as arguments, relinking their cons cells to form a new list that
1042 is the returned value.
1045 See @code{delq}, in @ref{Sets And Lists}, for another function
1046 that modifies cons cells.
1049 The function @code{delq} in the following section is another example
1050 of destructive list manipulation.
1053 @defun nconc &rest lists
1054 @cindex concatenating lists
1055 @cindex joining lists
1056 This function returns a list containing all the elements of @var{lists}.
1057 Unlike @code{append} (@pxref{Building Lists}), the @var{lists} are
1058 @emph{not} copied. Instead, the last @sc{cdr} of each of the
1059 @var{lists} is changed to refer to the following list. The last of the
1060 @var{lists} is not altered. For example:
1069 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5)
1073 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5)
1077 Since the last argument of @code{nconc} is not itself modified, it is
1078 reasonable to use a constant list, such as @code{'(4 5)}, as in the
1079 above example. For the same reason, the last argument need not be a
1089 @result{} (1 2 3 . z)
1093 @result{} (1 2 3 . z)
1097 However, the other arguments (all but the last) must be lists.
1099 A common pitfall is to use a quoted constant list as a non-last
1100 argument to @code{nconc}. If you do this, your program will change
1101 each time you run it! Here is what happens:
1105 (defun add-foo (x) ; @r{We want this function to add}
1106 (nconc '(foo) x)) ; @r{@code{foo} to the front of its arg.}
1110 (symbol-function 'add-foo)
1111 @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo)) x))
1115 (setq xx (add-foo '(1 2))) ; @r{It seems to work.}
1119 (setq xy (add-foo '(3 4))) ; @r{What happened?}
1120 @result{} (foo 1 2 3 4)
1128 (symbol-function 'add-foo)
1129 @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo 1 2 3 4) x)))
1134 @defun nreverse list
1135 @cindex reversing a list
1136 This function reverses the order of the elements of @var{list}.
1137 Unlike @code{reverse}, @code{nreverse} alters its argument by reversing
1138 the @sc{cdr}s in the cons cells forming the list. The cons cell that
1139 used to be the last one in @var{list} becomes the first cons cell of the
1156 ;; @r{The cons cell that was first is now last.}
1162 To avoid confusion, we usually store the result of @code{nreverse}
1163 back in the same variable which held the original list:
1166 (setq x (nreverse x))
1169 Here is the @code{nreverse} of our favorite example, @code{(a b c)},
1170 presented graphically:
1174 @r{Original list head:} @r{Reversed list:}
1175 ------------- ------------- ------------
1176 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr |
1177 | a | nil |<-- | b | o |<-- | c | o |
1178 | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1179 ------------- | --------- | - | -------- | -
1181 ------------- ------------
1186 @defun sort list predicate
1188 @cindex sorting lists
1189 This function sorts @var{list} stably, though destructively, and
1190 returns the sorted list. It compares elements using @var{predicate}. A
1191 stable sort is one in which elements with equal sort keys maintain their
1192 relative order before and after the sort. Stability is important when
1193 successive sorts are used to order elements according to different
1196 The argument @var{predicate} must be a function that accepts two
1197 arguments. It is called with two elements of @var{list}. To get an
1198 increasing order sort, the @var{predicate} should return non-@code{nil} if the
1199 first element is ``less than'' the second, or @code{nil} if not.
1201 The comparison function @var{predicate} must give reliable results for
1202 any given pair of arguments, at least within a single call to
1203 @code{sort}. It must be @dfn{antisymmetric}; that is, if @var{a} is
1204 less than @var{b}, @var{b} must not be less than @var{a}. It must be
1205 @dfn{transitive}---that is, if @var{a} is less than @var{b}, and @var{b}
1206 is less than @var{c}, then @var{a} must be less than @var{c}. If you
1207 use a comparison function which does not meet these requirements, the
1208 result of @code{sort} is unpredictable.
1210 The destructive aspect of @code{sort} is that it rearranges the cons
1211 cells forming @var{list} by changing @sc{cdr}s. A nondestructive sort
1212 function would create new cons cells to store the elements in their
1213 sorted order. If you wish to make a sorted copy without destroying the
1214 original, copy it first with @code{copy-sequence} and then sort.
1216 Sorting does not change the @sc{car}s of the cons cells in @var{list};
1217 the cons cell that originally contained the element @code{a} in
1218 @var{list} still has @code{a} in its @sc{car} after sorting, but it now
1219 appears in a different position in the list due to the change of
1220 @sc{cdr}s. For example:
1224 (setq nums '(1 3 2 6 5 4 0))
1225 @result{} (1 3 2 6 5 4 0)
1229 @result{} (0 1 2 3 4 5 6)
1233 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5 6)
1238 @strong{Warning}: Note that the list in @code{nums} no longer contains
1239 0; this is the same cons cell that it was before, but it is no longer
1240 the first one in the list. Don't assume a variable that formerly held
1241 the argument now holds the entire sorted list! Instead, save the result
1242 of @code{sort} and use that. Most often we store the result back into
1243 the variable that held the original list:
1246 (setq nums (sort nums '<))
1249 @xref{Sorting}, for more functions that perform sorting.
1250 See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a
1251 useful example of @code{sort}.
1254 @node Sets And Lists
1255 @section Using Lists as Sets
1256 @cindex lists as sets
1259 A list can represent an unordered mathematical set---simply consider a
1260 value an element of a set if it appears in the list, and ignore the
1261 order of the list. To form the union of two sets, use @code{append} (as
1262 long as you don't mind having duplicate elements). You can remove
1263 @code{equal} duplicates using @code{delete-dups}. Other useful
1264 functions for sets include @code{memq} and @code{delq}, and their
1265 @code{equal} versions, @code{member} and @code{delete}.
1267 @cindex CL note---lack @code{union}, @code{intersection}
1269 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp has functions @code{union} (which
1270 avoids duplicate elements) and @code{intersection} for set operations.
1271 Although standard GNU Emacs Lisp does not have them, the @file{cl}
1272 library provides versions. @inforef{Top, Overview, cl}.
1275 @defun memq object list
1276 @cindex membership in a list
1277 This function tests to see whether @var{object} is a member of
1278 @var{list}. If it is, @code{memq} returns a list starting with the
1279 first occurrence of @var{object}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}.
1280 The letter @samp{q} in @code{memq} says that it uses @code{eq} to
1281 compare @var{object} against the elements of the list. For example:
1285 (memq 'b '(a b c b a))
1289 (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.}
1295 @defun delq object list
1296 @cindex deleting list elements
1297 This function destructively removes all elements @code{eq} to
1298 @var{object} from @var{list}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{delq} says
1299 that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements of
1300 the list, like @code{memq} and @code{remq}.
1303 When @code{delq} deletes elements from the front of the list, it does so
1304 simply by advancing down the list and returning a sublist that starts
1305 after those elements:
1309 (delq 'a '(a b c)) @equiv{} (cdr '(a b c))
1313 When an element to be deleted appears in the middle of the list,
1314 removing it involves changing the @sc{cdr}s (@pxref{Setcdr}).
1318 (setq sample-list '(a b c (4)))
1319 @result{} (a b c (4))
1322 (delq 'a sample-list)
1327 @result{} (a b c (4))
1330 (delq 'c sample-list)
1339 Note that @code{(delq 'c sample-list)} modifies @code{sample-list} to
1340 splice out the third element, but @code{(delq 'a sample-list)} does not
1341 splice anything---it just returns a shorter list. Don't assume that a
1342 variable which formerly held the argument @var{list} now has fewer
1343 elements, or that it still holds the original list! Instead, save the
1344 result of @code{delq} and use that. Most often we store the result back
1345 into the variable that held the original list:
1348 (setq flowers (delq 'rose flowers))
1351 In the following example, the @code{(4)} that @code{delq} attempts to match
1352 and the @code{(4)} in the @code{sample-list} are not @code{eq}:
1356 (delq '(4) sample-list)
1361 If you want to delete elements that are @code{equal} to a given value,
1362 use @code{delete} (see below).
1364 @defun remq object list
1365 This function returns a copy of @var{list}, with all elements removed
1366 which are @code{eq} to @var{object}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{remq}
1367 says that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements
1372 (setq sample-list '(a b c a b c))
1373 @result{} (a b c a b c)
1376 (remq 'a sample-list)
1381 @result{} (a b c a b c)
1386 @defun memql object list
1387 The function @code{memql} tests to see whether @var{object} is a member
1388 of @var{list}, comparing members with @var{object} using @code{eql},
1389 so floating point elements are compared by value.
1390 If @var{object} is a member, @code{memql} returns a list starting with
1391 its first occurrence in @var{list}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}.
1393 Compare this with @code{memq}:
1397 (memql 1.2 '(1.1 1.2 1.3)) ; @r{@code{1.2} and @code{1.2} are @code{eql}.}
1401 (memq 1.2 '(1.1 1.2 1.3)) ; @r{@code{1.2} and @code{1.2} are not @code{eq}.}
1407 The following three functions are like @code{memq}, @code{delq} and
1408 @code{remq}, but use @code{equal} rather than @code{eq} to compare
1409 elements. @xref{Equality Predicates}.
1411 @defun member object list
1412 The function @code{member} tests to see whether @var{object} is a member
1413 of @var{list}, comparing members with @var{object} using @code{equal}.
1414 If @var{object} is a member, @code{member} returns a list starting with
1415 its first occurrence in @var{list}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}.
1417 Compare this with @code{memq}:
1421 (member '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are @code{equal}.}
1425 (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.}
1429 ;; @r{Two strings with the same contents are @code{equal}.}
1430 (member "foo" '("foo" "bar"))
1431 @result{} ("foo" "bar")
1436 @defun delete object sequence
1437 If @code{sequence} is a list, this function destructively removes all
1438 elements @code{equal} to @var{object} from @var{sequence}. For lists,
1439 @code{delete} is to @code{delq} as @code{member} is to @code{memq}: it
1440 uses @code{equal} to compare elements with @var{object}, like
1441 @code{member}; when it finds an element that matches, it cuts the
1442 element out just as @code{delq} would.
1444 If @code{sequence} is a vector or string, @code{delete} returns a copy
1445 of @code{sequence} with all elements @code{equal} to @code{object}
1452 (setq l '((2) (1) (2)))
1457 ;; @r{If you want to change @code{l} reliably,}
1458 ;; @r{write @code{(setq l (delete '(2) l))}.}
1461 (setq l '((2) (1) (2)))
1466 ;; @r{In this case, it makes no difference whether you set @code{l},}
1467 ;; @r{but you should do so for the sake of the other case.}
1470 (delete '(2) [(2) (1) (2)])
1476 @defun remove object sequence
1477 This function is the non-destructive counterpart of @code{delete}. It
1478 returns a copy of @code{sequence}, a list, vector, or string, with
1479 elements @code{equal} to @code{object} removed. For example:
1483 (remove '(2) '((2) (1) (2)))
1487 (remove '(2) [(2) (1) (2)])
1494 @b{Common Lisp note:} The functions @code{member}, @code{delete} and
1495 @code{remove} in GNU Emacs Lisp are derived from Maclisp, not Common
1496 Lisp. The Common Lisp versions do not use @code{equal} to compare
1500 @defun member-ignore-case object list
1501 This function is like @code{member}, except that @var{object} should
1502 be a string and that it ignores differences in letter-case and text
1503 representation: upper-case and lower-case letters are treated as
1504 equal, and unibyte strings are converted to multibyte prior to
1508 @defun delete-dups list
1509 This function destructively removes all @code{equal} duplicates from
1510 @var{list}, stores the result in @var{list} and returns it. Of
1511 several @code{equal} occurrences of an element in @var{list},
1512 @code{delete-dups} keeps the first one.
1515 See also the function @code{add-to-list}, in @ref{List Variables},
1516 for a way to add an element to a list stored in a variable and used as a
1519 @node Association Lists
1520 @section Association Lists
1521 @cindex association list
1524 An @dfn{association list}, or @dfn{alist} for short, records a mapping
1525 from keys to values. It is a list of cons cells called
1526 @dfn{associations}: the @sc{car} of each cons cell is the @dfn{key}, and the
1527 @sc{cdr} is the @dfn{associated value}.@footnote{This usage of ``key''
1528 is not related to the term ``key sequence''; it means a value used to
1529 look up an item in a table. In this case, the table is the alist, and
1530 the alist associations are the items.}
1532 Here is an example of an alist. The key @code{pine} is associated with
1533 the value @code{cones}; the key @code{oak} is associated with
1534 @code{acorns}; and the key @code{maple} is associated with @code{seeds}.
1544 Both the values and the keys in an alist may be any Lisp objects.
1545 For example, in the following alist, the symbol @code{a} is
1546 associated with the number @code{1}, and the string @code{"b"} is
1547 associated with the @emph{list} @code{(2 3)}, which is the @sc{cdr} of
1554 Sometimes it is better to design an alist to store the associated
1555 value in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr} of the element. Here is an
1556 example of such an alist:
1559 ((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow))
1563 Here we regard @code{red} as the value associated with @code{rose}. One
1564 advantage of this kind of alist is that you can store other related
1565 information---even a list of other items---in the @sc{cdr} of the
1566 @sc{cdr}. One disadvantage is that you cannot use @code{rassq} (see
1567 below) to find the element containing a given value. When neither of
1568 these considerations is important, the choice is a matter of taste, as
1569 long as you are consistent about it for any given alist.
1571 The same alist shown above could be regarded as having the
1572 associated value in the @sc{cdr} of the element; the value associated
1573 with @code{rose} would be the list @code{(red)}.
1575 Association lists are often used to record information that you might
1576 otherwise keep on a stack, since new associations may be added easily to
1577 the front of the list. When searching an association list for an
1578 association with a given key, the first one found is returned, if there
1581 In Emacs Lisp, it is @emph{not} an error if an element of an
1582 association list is not a cons cell. The alist search functions simply
1583 ignore such elements. Many other versions of Lisp signal errors in such
1586 Note that property lists are similar to association lists in several
1587 respects. A property list behaves like an association list in which
1588 each key can occur only once. @xref{Property Lists}, for a comparison
1589 of property lists and association lists.
1591 @defun assoc key alist
1592 This function returns the first association for @var{key} in
1593 @var{alist}, comparing @var{key} against the alist elements using
1594 @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}). It returns @code{nil} if no
1595 association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{equal} to @var{key}.
1599 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)))
1600 @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))
1602 @result{} (oak . acorns)
1603 (cdr (assoc 'oak trees))
1605 (assoc 'birch trees)
1609 Here is another example, in which the keys and values are not symbols:
1612 (setq needles-per-cluster
1613 '((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")
1617 (cdr (assoc 3 needles-per-cluster))
1618 @result{} ("Pitch Pine")
1619 (cdr (assoc 2 needles-per-cluster))
1620 @result{} ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")
1624 The function @code{assoc-string} is much like @code{assoc} except
1625 that it ignores certain differences between strings. @xref{Text
1628 @defun rassoc value alist
1629 This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in
1630 @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has
1631 a @sc{cdr} @code{equal} to @var{value}.
1633 @code{rassoc} is like @code{assoc} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of
1634 each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of
1635 this as ``reverse @code{assoc}'', finding the key for a given value.
1638 @defun assq key alist
1639 This function is like @code{assoc} in that it returns the first
1640 association for @var{key} in @var{alist}, but it makes the comparison
1641 using @code{eq} instead of @code{equal}. @code{assq} returns @code{nil}
1642 if no association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{eq} to @var{key}.
1643 This function is used more often than @code{assoc}, since @code{eq} is
1644 faster than @code{equal} and most alists use symbols as keys.
1645 @xref{Equality Predicates}.
1648 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)))
1649 @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))
1651 @result{} (pine . cones)
1654 On the other hand, @code{assq} is not usually useful in alists where the
1655 keys may not be symbols:
1659 '(("simple leaves" . oak)
1660 ("compound leaves" . horsechestnut)))
1662 (assq "simple leaves" leaves)
1664 (assoc "simple leaves" leaves)
1665 @result{} ("simple leaves" . oak)
1669 @defun rassq value alist
1670 This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in
1671 @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has
1672 a @sc{cdr} @code{eq} to @var{value}.
1674 @code{rassq} is like @code{assq} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of
1675 each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of
1676 this as ``reverse @code{assq}'', finding the key for a given value.
1681 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)))
1683 (rassq 'acorns trees)
1684 @result{} (oak . acorns)
1685 (rassq 'spores trees)
1689 @code{rassq} cannot search for a value stored in the @sc{car}
1690 of the @sc{cdr} of an element:
1693 (setq colors '((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow)))
1695 (rassq 'white colors)
1699 In this case, the @sc{cdr} of the association @code{(lily white)} is not
1700 the symbol @code{white}, but rather the list @code{(white)}. This
1701 becomes clearer if the association is written in dotted pair notation:
1704 (lily white) @equiv{} (lily . (white))
1708 @defun assoc-default key alist &optional test default
1709 This function searches @var{alist} for a match for @var{key}. For each
1710 element of @var{alist}, it compares the element (if it is an atom) or
1711 the element's @sc{car} (if it is a cons) against @var{key}, by calling
1712 @var{test} with two arguments: the element or its @sc{car}, and
1713 @var{key}. The arguments are passed in that order so that you can get
1714 useful results using @code{string-match} with an alist that contains
1715 regular expressions (@pxref{Regexp Search}). If @var{test} is omitted
1716 or @code{nil}, @code{equal} is used for comparison.
1718 If an alist element matches @var{key} by this criterion,
1719 then @code{assoc-default} returns a value based on this element.
1720 If the element is a cons, then the value is the element's @sc{cdr}.
1721 Otherwise, the return value is @var{default}.
1723 If no alist element matches @var{key}, @code{assoc-default} returns
1727 @defun copy-alist alist
1728 @cindex copying alists
1729 This function returns a two-level deep copy of @var{alist}: it creates a
1730 new copy of each association, so that you can alter the associations of
1731 the new alist without changing the old one.
1735 (setq needles-per-cluster
1736 '((2 . ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine"))
1737 (3 . ("Pitch Pine"))
1739 (5 . ("White Pine"))))
1741 ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")
1745 (setq copy (copy-alist needles-per-cluster))
1747 ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")
1751 (eq needles-per-cluster copy)
1753 (equal needles-per-cluster copy)
1755 (eq (car needles-per-cluster) (car copy))
1757 (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster)))
1758 @result{} ("Pitch Pine")
1760 (eq (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster)))
1761 (cdr (car (cdr copy))))
1766 This example shows how @code{copy-alist} makes it possible to change
1767 the associations of one copy without affecting the other:
1771 (setcdr (assq 3 copy) '("Martian Vacuum Pine"))
1772 (cdr (assq 3 needles-per-cluster))
1773 @result{} ("Pitch Pine")
1778 @defun assq-delete-all key alist
1779 This function deletes from @var{alist} all the elements whose @sc{car}
1780 is @code{eq} to @var{key}, much as if you used @code{delq} to delete
1781 each such element one by one. It returns the shortened alist, and
1782 often modifies the original list structure of @var{alist}. For
1783 correct results, use the return value of @code{assq-delete-all} rather
1784 than looking at the saved value of @var{alist}.
1787 (setq alist '((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4)))
1788 @result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (foo 3) (lose 4))
1789 (assq-delete-all 'foo alist)
1790 @result{} ((bar 2) (lose 4))
1792 @result{} ((foo 1) (bar 2) (lose 4))
1796 @defun rassq-delete-all value alist
1797 This function deletes from @var{alist} all the elements whose @sc{cdr}
1798 is @code{eq} to @var{value}. It returns the shortened alist, and
1799 often modifies the original list structure of @var{alist}.
1800 @code{rassq-delete-all} is like @code{assq-delete-all} except that it
1801 compares the @sc{cdr} of each @var{alist} association instead of the