From 5d1a2888576990e60c95cdd15f21a1fbb6343fdd Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: "Eric S. Raymond" Date: Sat, 11 Jan 2014 09:27:38 -0500 Subject: [PATCH] /etc cleanup * COOKIES, copying.paper, INTERVIEW, MAILINGLISTS, MOTIVATION, publicsuffix.txt SERVICE: More deletions suggested by RMS. --- ChangeLog | 6 - etc/COOKIES | 157 -- etc/ChangeLog | 8 + etc/INTERVIEW | 442 ----- etc/MAILINGLISTS | 261 --- etc/MOTIVATION | 179 -- etc/SERVICE | 11 - etc/copying.paper | 819 -------- etc/publicsuffix.txt | 5189 -------------------------------------------------- 9 files changed, 8 insertions(+), 7064 deletions(-) delete mode 100644 etc/COOKIES delete mode 100644 etc/INTERVIEW delete mode 100644 etc/MAILINGLISTS delete mode 100644 etc/MOTIVATION delete mode 100644 etc/SERVICE delete mode 100644 etc/copying.paper delete mode 100644 etc/publicsuffix.txt diff --git a/ChangeLog b/ChangeLog index d220f2254ea..436dcdab5cb 100644 --- a/ChangeLog +++ b/ChangeLog @@ -1,9 +1,3 @@ -2014-01-11 Eric S. Raymond - - * celibacy.1, sex.6, condom.1, echo.msg: Deleted at RMS's - suggestion. Not lost to posterity as they are part of the - widely distributed funny-manpages collection. - 2014-01-11 Fabrice Popineau * configure.ac: Read $srcdir/nt/mingw-cfg.site when $MSYSTEM is diff --git a/etc/COOKIES b/etc/COOKIES deleted file mode 100644 index 1d8c0955d42..00000000000 --- a/etc/COOKIES +++ /dev/null @@ -1,157 +0,0 @@ -[Someone sent this in from California, and we decided to extend -our campaign against information hoarding to recipes as well -as software. (Recipes are the closest thing, not involving computers, -to software.) - -The story appears to be a myth, according to the Chicago Tribune, -which says that Mrs Fields Cookies hoards the information completely. -Therefore, this recipe can be thought of as a compatible replacement. -We have reports that the cookies it makes are pretty good.] - -Someone at PG&E called the Mrs. Fields Cookie office -and requested the recipe for her cookies. They asked -her for her charge card number, and she gave it to them -thinking the cost would be $15 to $25. It turned out -to be $200! - -Therefore, this person is giving the recipe to anyone -and everyone she knows (and doesn't know) so that -someone can get use of her $200. Anyway, just keep -passing it on. - -Cream together: 2 cups butter - 2 cups sugar - 2 cups brown sugar - -Add: 4 eggs - 2 tsp. vanilla - -Mix together in -separate bowl: 4 cups flour - 5 cups oatmeal (put small - amounts of oatmeal in blender until it turns to - powder. Measure out 5 cups of oatmeal and only - "powderize" that, NOT 5 cups "powderized" oatmeal) - - 1 tsp salt - 2 tsp baking powder - 2 tsp baking soda - -Mix: All of the above - -Add: 24 oz. bag of chocolate chips and - 1 finely grated 8 oz Hershey bar (plain) - -Add: 3 cups chopped nuts (any kind) - -Bake on greased cookie sheet (make golf ball sized balls) and -bake about two inches apart. Bake at 350 degrees for 8 - 10 -minutes. DO NOT OVERBAKE. Makes 112. - -From: ucdavis!lll-lcc!hplabs!parcvax!bane@ucbvax.berkeley.edu (John R. Bane) -Subject: Re: free cookie foundation? - -Hi! I "stole" your very expensive cookie recipe off the net. If you -want to send me your SnailMail address, I'll be glad to send you a -dollar (I would like to suggest this to the net, but I think there is -some netiquette rule against asking for money - or is that only money -for oneself?) to help defray the cost (it's not much, but if EVERYone -who took the recipe sent you a dollar, it would help). - -Here also is another cookie recipe which I'm very fond of. - -Makes 6-8 dozen -Bake at 375 degrees for ~10 min. - -Cream together: - -1 cup shortening (I use Weight Watcher's Reduced Calorie Margarine!) -1/4 cup peanut butter (I recommend the non-sugared kind) -1/2 cup sugar -1/2 cup brown sugar -2 eggs -1 teaspoon vanilla - -Add: - -1/2 cup flour -1 teaspoon soda -1/2 teaspoon salt -2 cups rolled oats (I use the 5-min variety) -1-2 cups chocolate chips (I use 2 cups semi-sweet - ummmm!) -1 cup nuts (I use pecan pieces - don't get them crushed, or the extra - oil will make greasy cookies) -1 cup shredded or flaked coconut - -(The nuts were listed as optional and I added the coconut myself, but -I really love them there! You could also add things like m&m's, or -raisins (I don't care for raisins in cookies, but you might). I've -always wanted to try banana chips.) - -Mix well. Drop by teaspoonfuls on greased cookie sheet (I use pam). -Bake at 375 degrees for approx. 10 min. - -My aunt found this recipe in an Amish book called something like -"Eating Well When The Whole World Is Starving," and although I thought -a cookie recipe was a bit odd for a book like that, they are about the -healthiest a cookie is ever likely to get. - -They are also very easy to make (no blending, sifting, rolling, etc.) -and extremely delicious. I get rave reviews and recipe requests whenever -I make them. - - - rene - -Chocolate Chip Cookies - Glamorous, crunchy, rich with chocolate bits & nuts. - -Also known as "Toll House" Cookies ... from Kenneth and Ruth Wakefield's -charming New England Toll House on the outskirts of Whitman, Massachusetts. -These cookies were first introduced to American homemakers in 1939 through -our series of radio talks on "Famous Foods From Famous Eating Places." - -Mix Thoroughly : - 2/3 cup soft shortening ( part butter ) - 1/2 cup granulated sugar - 1/2 cup brown sugar ( packed ) - 1 egg - 1 tsp vanilla - -Sift together and stir in : - 1-1/2 cups sifted flour (*) - 1/2 tsp soda - 1/2 tsp salt - -Stir in : - 1/2 cup cut-up nuts - 6 oz package of semi-sweet chocolate pieces ( about 1-1/4 cups ) - - -(*) for a softer, more rounded cookie, use 1-3/4 cups sifted flour. - - -Drop rounded teaspoonfuls about 2" apart on ungreased baking sheet. Bake until -delicately browned ... cookies should still be soft. Cool slightly before you -remove them from the baking sheet. - -Temperature: 375 F. ( modern oven ) -Time: bake 8 - 10 minutes -Amount: 4 - 5 dozen 2" cookies - - -===== - -Personal comments : - -I find it tastes better with a mixture of shortening and butter, as they say. - -You don't need << all >> of that sugar, and it can be whatever color you want. - -The nuts are optional. Feel free to play with the recipe. I put oatmeal in it, -reducing flour accordingly, and sometimes cinnamon. - -I also find it useful to grease the cookie sheets. - -I think I'm going to go bake some now ... - --- richard - diff --git a/etc/ChangeLog b/etc/ChangeLog index 7af5d65092f..e9c3f687738 100644 --- a/etc/ChangeLog +++ b/etc/ChangeLog @@ -1,3 +1,11 @@ +2014-01-11 Eric S. Raymond + + * celibacy.1, sex.6, condom.1, echo.msg: Deleted at RMS's + suggestion. Not lost to posterity as they are part of the + widely distributed funny-manpages collection. + * COOKIES, copying.paper, INTERVIEW, MAILINGLISTS, MOTIVATION, + publicsuffix.txt SERVICE: More deletions suggested by RMS. + 2014-01-10 Glenn Morris * ORDERS: Replace contents with pointer to emacs.info, mark obsolete. diff --git a/etc/INTERVIEW b/etc/INTERVIEW deleted file mode 100644 index 4e109ba49dd..00000000000 --- a/etc/INTERVIEW +++ /dev/null @@ -1,442 +0,0 @@ - - GNU'S NOT UNIX - - Conducted by David Betz and Jon Edwards - - Richard Stallman discusses his public-domain - UNIX-compatible software system - with BYTE editors - (July 1986) - -Copyright (C) 1986 Richard Stallman. Permission is granted to make and -distribute copies of this article as long as the copyright and this notice -appear on all copies. - -Richard Stallman has undertaken probably the most ambitious free software -development project to date, the GNU system. In his GNU Manifesto, -published in the March 1985 issue of Dr. Dobb's Journal, Stallman described -GNU as a "complete Unix-compatible software system which I am writing so -that I can give it away free to everyone who can use it... Once GNU is -written, everyone will be able to obtain good system software free, just -like air." (GNU is an acronym for GNU's Not UNIX; the "G" is pronounced.) - - Stallman is widely known as the author of EMACS, a powerful text editor -that he developed at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. It is no -coincidence that the first piece of software produced as part of the GNU -project was a new implementation of EMACS. GNU EMACS has already achieved a -reputation as one of the best implementations of EMACS currently available -at any price. - -BYTE: We read your GNU Manifesto in the March 1985 issue of Dr. Dobb's. -What has happened since? Was that really the beginning, and how have you -progressed since then? - -Stallman: The publication in Dr. Dobb's wasn't the beginning of the -project. I wrote the GNU Manifesto when I was getting ready to start the -project, as a proposal to ask computer manufacturers for funding. They -didn't want to get involved, and I decided that rather than spend my time -trying to pursue funds, I ought to spend it writing code. The manifesto was -published about a year and a half after I had written it, when I had barely -begun distributing the GNU EMACS. Since that time, in addition to making -GNU EMACS more complete and making it run on many more computers, I have -nearly finished the optimizing C compiler and all the other software that -is needed for running C programs. This includes a source-level debugger -that has many features that the other source-level debuggers on UNIX don't -have. For example, it has convenience variables within the debugger so you -can save values, and it also has a history of all the values that you have -printed out, making it tremendously easier to chase around list structures. - -BYTE: You have finished an editor that is now widely distributed and you -are about to finish the compiler. - -Stallman: I expect that it will be finished this October. - -BYTE: What about the kernel? - -Stallman: I'm currently planning to start with the kernel that was written -at MIT and was released to the public recently with the idea that I would -use it. This kernel is called TRIX; it's based on remote procedure call. I -still need to add compatibility for a lot of the features of UNIX which it -doesn't have currently. I haven't started to work on that yet. I'm -finishing the compiler before I go to work on the kernel. I am also going -to have to rewrite the file system. I intend to make it failsafe just by -having it write blocks in the proper order so that the disk structure is -always consistent. Then I want to add version numbers. I have a complicated -scheme to reconcile version numbers with the way people usually use UNIX. -You have to be able to specify filenames without version numbers, but you -also have to be able to specify them with explicit version numbers, and -these both need to work with ordinary UNIX programs that have not been -modified in any way to deal with the existence of this feature. I think I -have a scheme for doing this, and only trying it will show me whether it -really does the job. - -BYTE: Do you have a brief description you can give us as to how GNU as a -system will be superior to other systems? We know that one of your goals is -to produce something that is compatible with UNIX. But at least in the area -of file systems you have already said that you are going to go beyond UNIX -and produce something that is better. - -Stallman: The C compiler will produce better code and run faster. The -debugger is better. With each piece I may or may not find a way to improve -it. But there is no one answer to this question. To some extent I am -getting the benefit of reimplementation, which makes many systems much -better. To some extent it's because I have been in the field a long time -and worked on many other systems. I therefore have many ideas to bring to -bear. One way in which it will be better is that practically everything in -the system will work on files of any size, on lines of any size, with any -characters appearing in them. The UNIX system is very bad in that regard. -It's not anything new as a principle of software engineering that you -shouldn't have arbitrary limits. But it just was the standard practice in -writing UNIX to put those in all the time, possibly just because they were -writing it for a very small computer. The only limit in the GNU system is -when your program runs out of memory because it tried to work on too much -data and there is no place to keep it all. - -BYTE: And that isn't likely to be hit if you've got virtual memory. You may -just take forever to come up with the solution. - -Stallman: Actually these limits tend to hit in a time long before you take -forever to come up with the solution. - -BYTE: Can you say something about what types of machines and environments -GNU EMACS in particular has been made to run under? It's now running on -VAXes; has it migrated in any form to personal computers? - -Stallman: I'm not sure what you mean by personal computers. For example, is -a Sun a personal computer? GNU EMACS requires at least a megabyte of -available memory and preferably more. It is normally used on machines that -have virtual memory. Except for various technical problems in a few C -compilers, almost any machine with virtual memory and running a fairly -recent version of UNIX will run GNU EMACS, and most of them currently do. - -BYTE: Has anyone tried to port it to Ataris or Macintoshes? - -Stallman: The Atari 1040ST still doesn't have quite enough memory. The next -Atari machine, I expect, will run it. I also think that future Ataris will -have some forms of memory mapping. Of course, I am not designing the -software to run on the kinds of computers that are prevalent today. I knew -when I started this project it was going to take a few years. I therefore -decided that I didn't want to make a worse system by taking on the -additional challenge of making it run in the currently constrained -environment. So instead I decided I'm going to write it in the way that -seems the most natural and best. I am confident that in a couple of years -machines of sufficient size will be prevalent. In fact, increases in memory -size are happening so fast it surprises me how slow most of the people are -to put in virtual memory; I think it is totally essential. - -BYTE: I think people don't really view it as being necessary for -single-user machines. - -Stallman: They don't understand that single user doesn't mean single -program. Certainly for any UNIX-like system it's important to be able to -run lots of different processes at the same time even if there is only one -of you. You could run GNU EMACS on a nonvirtual-memory machine with enough -memory, but you couldn't run the rest of the GNU system very well or a UNIX -system very well. - -BYTE: How much of LISP is present in GNU EMACS? It occurred to me that it -may be useful to use that as a tool for learning LISP. - -Stallman: You can certainly do that. GNU EMACS contains a complete, -although not very powerful, LISP system. It's powerful enough for writing -editor commands. It's not comparable with, say, a Common LISP System, -something you could really use for system programming, but it has all the -things that LISP needs to have. - -BYTE: Do you have any predictions about when you would be likely to -distribute a workable environment in which, if we put it on our machines or -workstations, we could actually get reasonable work done without using -anything other than code that you distribute? - -Stallman: It's really hard to say. That could happen in a year, but of -course it could take longer. It could also conceivably take less, but -that's not too likely anymore. I think I'll have the compiler finished in a -month or two. The only other large piece of work I really have to do is in -the kernel. I first predicted GNU would take something like two years, but -it has now been two and a half years and I'm still not finished. Part of -the reason for the delay is that I spent a lot of time working on one -compiler that turned out to be a dead end. I had to rewrite it completely. -Another reason is that I spent so much time on GNU EMACS. I originally -thought I wouldn't have to do that at all. - -BYTE: Tell us about your distribution scheme. - -Stallman: I don't put software or manuals in the public domain, and the -reason is that I want to make sure that all the users get the freedom to -share. I don't want anyone making an improved version of a program I wrote -and distributing it as proprietary. I don't want that to ever be able to -happen. I want to encourage the free improvements to these programs, and -the best way to do that is to take away any temptation for a person to make -improvements nonfree. Yes, a few of them will refrain from making -improvements, but a lot of others will make the same improvements and -they'll make them free. - -BYTE: And how do you go about guaranteeing that? - -Stallman: I do this by copyrighting the programs and putting on a notice -giving people explicit permission to copy the programs and change them but -only on the condition that they distribute under the same terms that I -used, if at all. You don't have to distribute the changes you make to any -of my programs--you can just do it for yourself, and you don't have to give -it to anyone or tell anyone. But if you do give it to someone else, you -have to do it under the same terms that I use. - -BYTE: Do you obtain any rights over the executable code derived from the C -compiler? - -Stallman: The copyright law doesn't give me copyright on output from the -compiler, so it doesn't give me a way to say anything about that, and in -fact I don't try to. I don't sympathize with people developing proprietary -products with any compiler, but it doesn't seem especially useful to try to -stop them from developing them with this compiler, so I am not going to. - -BYTE: Do your restrictions apply if people take pieces of your code to -produce other things as well? - -Stallman: Yes, if they incorporate with changes any sizable piece. If it -were two lines of code, that's nothing; copyright doesn't apply to that. -Essentially, I have chosen these conditions so that first there is a -copyright, which is what all the software hoarders use to stop everybody -from doing anything, and then I add a notice giving up part of those -rights. So the conditions talk only about the things that copyright applies -to. I don't believe that the reason you should obey these conditions is -because of the law. The reason you should obey is because an upright person -when he distributes software encourages other people to share it further. - -BYTE: In a sense you are enticing people into this mode of thinking by -providing all of these interesting tools that they can use but only if they -buy into your philosophy. - -Stallman: Yes. You could also see it as using the legal system that -software hoarders have set up against them. I'm using it to protect the -public from them. - -BYTE: Given that manufacturers haven't wanted to fund the project, who do -you think will use the GNU system when it is done? - -Stallman: I have no idea, but it is not an important question. My purpose -is to make it possible for people to reject the chains that come with -proprietary software. I know that there are people who want to do that. -Now, there may be others who don't care, but they are not my concern. I -feel a bit sad for them and for the people that they influence. Right now a -person who perceives the unpleasantness of the terms of proprietary -software feels that he is stuck and has no alternative except not to use a -computer. Well, I am going to give him a comfortable alternative. - Other people may use the GNU system simply because it is technically -superior. For example, my C compiler is producing about as good a code as I -have seen from any C compiler. And GNU EMACS is generally regarded as being -far superior to the commercial competition. And GNU EMACS was not funded by -anyone either, but everyone is using it. I therefore think that many people -will use the rest of the GNU system because of its technical advantages. -But I would be doing a GNU system even if I didn't know how to make it -technically better because I want it to be socially better. The GNU project -is really a social project. It uses technical means to make a change in -society. - -BYTE: Then it is fairly important to you that people adopt GNU. It is not -just an academic exercise to produce this software to give it away to -people. You hope it will change the way the software industry operates. - -Stallman: Yes. Some people say no one will ever use it because it doesn't -have some attractive corporate logo on it, and other people say that they -think it is tremendously important and everyone's going to want to use it. -I have no way of knowing what is really going to happen. I don't know any -other way to try to change the ugliness of the field that I find myself in, -so this is what I have to do. - -BYTE: Can you address the implications? You obviously feel that this is an -important political and social statement. - -Stallman: It is a change. I'm trying to change the way people approach -knowledge and information in general. I think that to try to own knowledge, -to try to control whether people are allowed to use it, or to try to stop -other people from sharing it, is sabotage. It is an activity that benefits -the person that does it at the cost of impoverishing all of society. One -person gains one dollar by destroying two dollars' worth of wealth. I think -a person with a conscience wouldn't do that sort of thing except perhaps if -he would otherwise die. And of course the people who do this are fairly -rich; I can only conclude that they are unscrupulous. I would like to see -people get rewards for writing free software and for encouraging other -people to use it. I don't want to see people get rewards for writing -proprietary software because that is not really a contribution to society. -The principle of capitalism is the idea that people manage to make money by -producing things and thereby are encouraged to do what is useful, -automatically, so to speak. But that doesn't work when it comes to owning -knowledge. They are encouraged to do not really what's useful, and what -really is useful is not encouraged. I think it is important to say that -information is different from material objects like cars and loaves of -bread because people can copy it and share it on their own and, if nobody -attempts to stop them, they can change it and make it better for -themselves. That is a useful thing for people to do. This isn't true of -loaves of bread. If you have one loaf of bread and you want another, you -can't just put your loaf of bread into a bread copier. you can't make -another one except by going through all the steps that were used to make -the first one. It therefore is irrelevant whether people are permitted to -copy it--it's impossible. - Books were printed only on printing presses until recently. It was -possible to make a copy yourself by hand, but it wasn't practical because -it took so much more work than using a printing press. And it produced -something so much less attractive that, for all intents and purposes, you -could act as if it were impossible to make books except by mass producing -them. And therefore copyright didn't really take any freedom away from the -reading public. There wasn't anything that a book purchaser could do that -was forbidden by copyright. - But this isn't true for computer programs. It's also not true for tape -cassettes. It's partly false now for books, but it is still true that for -most books it is more expensive and certainly a lot more work to Xerox them -than to buy a copy, and the result is still less attractive. Right now we -are in a period where the situation that made copyright harmless and -acceptable is changing to a situation where copyright will become -destructive and intolerable. So the people who are slandered as "pirates" -are in fact the people who are trying to do something useful that they have -been forbidden to do. The copyright laws are entirely designed to help -people take complete control over the use of some information for their own -good. But they aren't designed to help people who want to make sure that -the information is accessible to the public and stop others from depriving -the public. I think that the law should recognize a class of works that are -owned by the public, which is different from public domain in the same -sense that a public park is different from something found in a garbage -can. It's not there for anybody to take away, it's there for everyone to -use but for no one to impede. Anybody in the public who finds himself being -deprived of the derivative work of something owned by the public should be -able to sue about it. - -BYTE: But aren't pirates interested in getting copies of programs because -they want to use those programs, not because they want to use that -knowledge to produce something better? - -Stallman: I don't see that that's the important distinction. More people -using a program means that the program contributes more to society. You -have a loaf of bread that could be eaten either once or a million times. - -BYTE: Some users buy commercial software to obtain support. How does your -distribution scheme provide support? - -Stallman: I suspect that those users are misled and are not thinking -clearly. It is certainly useful to have support, but when they start -thinking about how that has something to do with selling software or with -the software being proprietary, at that point they are confusing -themselves. There is no guarantee that proprietary software will receive -good support. Simply because sellers say that they provide support, that -doesn't mean it will be any good. And they may go out of business. In fact, -people think that GNU EMACS has better support than commercial EMACSes. One -of the reasons is that I'm probably a better hacker than the people who -wrote the other EMACSes, but the other reason is that everyone has sources -and there are so many people interested in figuring out how to do things -with it that you don't have to get your support from me. Even just the free -support that consists of my fixing bugs people report to me and -incorporating that in the next release has given people a good level of -support. You can always hire somebody to solve a problem for you, and when -the software is free you have a competitive market for the support. You can -hire anybody. I distribute a service list with EMACS, a list of people's -names and phone numbers and what they charge to provide support. - -BYTE: Do you collect their bug fixes? - -Stallman: Well, they send them to me. I asked all the people who wanted to -be listed to promise that they would never ask any of their customers to -keep secret whatever they were told or any changes they were given to the -GNU software as part of that support. - -BYTE: So you can't have people competing to provide support based on their -knowing the solution to some problem that somebody else doesn't know. - -Stallman: No. They can compete based on their being clever and more likely -to find the solution to your problem, or their already understanding more -of the common problems, or knowing better how to explain to you what you -should do. These are all ways they can compete. They can try to do better, -but they cannot actively impede their competitors. - -BYTE: I suppose it's like buying a car. You're not forced to go back to the -original manufacturer for support or continued maintenance. - -Stallman: Or buying a house--what would it be like if the only person who -could ever fix problems with your house was the contractor who built it -originally? That is the kind of imposition that's involved in proprietary -software. People tell me about a problem that happens in UNIX. Because -manufacturers sell improved versions of UNIX, they tend to collect fixes -and not give them out except in binaries. The result is that the bugs don't -really get fixed. - -BYTE: They're all duplicating effort trying to solve bugs independently. - -Stallman: Yes. Here is another point that helps put the problem of -proprietary information in a social perspective. Think about the liability -insurance crisis. In order to get any compensation from society, an injured -person has to hire a lawyer and split the money with that lawyer. This is a -stupid and inefficient way of helping out people who are victims of -accidents. And consider all the time that people put into hustling to take -business away from their competition. Think of the pens that are packaged -in large cardboard packages that cost more than the pen--just to make sure -that the pen isn't stolen. Wouldn't it be better if we just put free pens -on every street corner? And think of all the toll booths that impede the -flow of traffic. It's a gigantic social phenomenon. People find ways of -getting money by impeding society. Once they can impede society, they can -be paid to leave people alone. The waste inherent in owning information -will become more and more important and will ultimately make the difference -between the utopia in which nobody really has to work for a living because -it's all done by robots and a world just like ours where everyone spends -much time replicating what the next fellow is doing. - -BYTE: Like typing in copyright notices on the software. - -Stallman: More like policing everyone to make sure that they don't have -forbidden copies of anything and duplicating all the work people have -already done because it is proprietary. - -BYTE: A cynic might wonder how you earn your living. - -Stallman: From consulting. When I do consulting, I always reserve the right -to give away what I wrote for the consulting job. Also, I could be making -my living by mailing copies of the free software that I wrote and some that -other people wrote. Lots of people send in $150 for GNU EMACS, but now this -money goes to the Free Software Foundation that I started. The foundation -doesn't pay me a salary because it would be a conflict of interest. -Instead, it hires other people to work on GNU. As long as I can go on -making a living by consulting I think that's the best way. - -BYTE: What is currently included in the official GNU distribution tape? - -Stallman: Right now the tape contains GNU EMACS (one version fits all -computers); Bison, a program that replaces YACC; MIT Scheme, which is -Professor Sussman's super-simplified dialect of LISP; and Hack, a -dungeon-exploring game similar to Rogue. - -BYTE: Does the printed manual come with the tape as well? - -Stallman: No. Printed manuals cost $15 each or copy them yourself. Copy -this interview and share it, too. - -BYTE: How can you get a copy of that? - -Stallman: Write to the Free Software Foundation, 675 Massachusetts Ave., -Cambridge, MA 02139. - -[As of April 2005, this address is: - Free Software Foundation - 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor - Boston, MA 02110-1301, USA - Voice: +1-617-542-5942 - Fax: +1-617-542-2652 -] - -BYTE: What are you going to do when you are done with the GNU system? - -Stallman: I'm not sure. Sometimes I think that what I'll go on to do is the -same thing in other areas of software. - -BYTE: So this is just the first of a whole series of assaults on the -software industry? - -Stallman: I hope so. But perhaps what I'll do is just live a life of ease -working a little bit of the time just to live. I don't have to live -expensively. The rest of the time I can find interesting people to hang -around with or learn to do things that I don't know how to do. - -Editorial Note: BYTE holds the right to provide this interview on BIX but -will not interfere with its distribution. - -Richard Stallman, 545 Technology Square, Room 703, Cambridge, MA 02139. -Copyright (C) 1986 Richard Stallman. Permission is granted to make and -distribute copies of this article as long as the copyright and this notice -appear on all copies. diff --git a/etc/MAILINGLISTS b/etc/MAILINGLISTS deleted file mode 100644 index 0d5ce9bf6ce..00000000000 --- a/etc/MAILINGLISTS +++ /dev/null @@ -1,261 +0,0 @@ - GNU Project Electronic Mailing Lists and gnUSENET Newsgroups - Last Updated 2006-06-03 - - Please report improvements to: gnu@gnu.org - - See the end of this file for copyright notice and copying conditions - -* Mailing list archives - -The GNU mailing lists are archived at http://lists.gnu.org. - -* Some GNU mailing lists are also distributed as USENET news groups - -Certain GNU mailing lists are gated both ways with the gnu.all -newsgroups at uunet. You can tell which they are, because the names -correspond. For instance, bug-gnu-emacs corresponds to gnu.emacs.bug; -info-gnu-emacs, to gnu.emacs.announce; help-gnu-emacs, to -gnu.emacs.help; gnu-emacs-sources, to gnu.emacs.sources. 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This prevents the requester from getting many redundant copies -and saves network bandwidth. - -Local variables: -mode: outline -fill-column: 72 -End: - -Copyright (C) 1999, 2001-2014 Free Software Foundation, Inc. - - Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining - a copy of this file, to deal in the file without restriction, including - without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, - distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the file, and to - permit persons to whom the file is furnished to do so, subject to - the following condition: - - The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be - included in all copies or substantial portions of the file. diff --git a/etc/MOTIVATION b/etc/MOTIVATION deleted file mode 100644 index 50194925f13..00000000000 --- a/etc/MOTIVATION +++ /dev/null @@ -1,179 +0,0 @@ -STUDIES FIND REWARD OFTEN NO MOTIVATOR - -Creativity and intrinsic interest diminish if task is done for gain - -By Alfie Kohn -Special to the Boston Globe -[reprinted with permission of the author - from the Monday 19 January 1987 Boston Globe] - -Verbatim copying and distribution is permitted in any medium -provided this notice is preserved. - -In the laboratory, rats get Rice Krispies. In the classroom the top -students get A's, and in the factory or office the best workers get -raises. It's an article of faith for most of us that rewards promote -better performance. - -But a growing body of research suggests that this law is not nearly as -ironclad as was once thought. Psychologists have been finding that -rewards can lower performance levels, especially when the performance -involves creativity. - -A related series of studies shows that intrinsic interest in a task - -the sense that something is worth doing for its own sake - typically -declines when someone is rewarded for doing it. - -If a reward - money, awards, praise, or winning a contest - comes to -be seen as the reason one is engaging in an activity, that activity -will be viewed as less enjoyable in its own right. - -With the exception of some behaviorists who doubt the very existence -of intrinsic motivation, these conclusions are now widely accepted -among psychologists. Taken together, they suggest we may unwittingly -be squelching interest and discouraging innovation among workers, -students and artists. - -The recognition that rewards can have counter-productive effects is -based on a variety of studies, which have come up with such findings -as these: Young children who are rewarded for drawing are less likely -to draw on their own that are children who draw just for the fun of -it. Teenagers offered rewards for playing word games enjoy the games -less and do not do as well as those who play with no rewards. -Employees who are praised for meeting a manager's expectations suffer -a drop in motivation. - -Much of the research on creativity and motivation has been performed -by Theresa Amabile, associate professor of psychology at Brandeis -University. In a paper published early last year on her most recent -study, she reported on experiments involving elementary school and -college students. Both groups were asked to make "silly" collages. -The young children were also asked to invent stories. - -The least-creative projects, as rated by several teachers, were done -by those students who had contracted for rewards. "It may be that -commissioned work will, in general, be less creative than work that is -done out of pure interest," Amabile said. - -In 1985, Amabile asked 72 creative writers at Brandeis and at Boston -University to write poetry. Some students then were given a list of -extrinsic (external) reasons for writing, such as impressing teachers, -making money and getting into graduate school, and were asked to think -about their own writing with respect to these reasons. Others were -given a list of intrinsic reasons: the enjoyment of playing with -words, satisfaction from self-expression, and so forth. A third group -was not given any list. All were then asked to do more writing. - -The results were clear. Students given the extrinsic reasons not only -wrote less creatively than the others, as judged by 12 independent -poets, but the quality of their work dropped significantly. Rewards, -Amabile says, have this destructive effect primarily with creative -tasks, including higher-level problem-solving. "The more complex the -activity, the more it's hurt by extrinsic reward," she said. - -But other research shows that artists are by no means the only ones -affected. - -In one study, girls in the fifth and sixth grades tutored younger -children much less effectively if they were promised free movie -tickets for teaching well. The study, by James Gabarino, now -president of Chicago's Erikson Institute for Advanced Studies in Child -Development, showed that tutors working for the reward took longer to -communicate ideas, got frustrated more easily, and did a poorer job in -the end than those who were not rewarded. - -Such findings call into question the widespread belief that money is -an effective and even necessary way to motivate people. They also -challenge the behaviorist assumption that any activity is more likely -to occur if it is rewarded. Amabile says her research "definitely -refutes the notion that creativity can be operantly conditioned." - -But Kenneth McGraw, associate professor of psychology at the -University of Mississippi, cautions that this does not mean -behaviorism itself has been invalidated. "The basic principles of -reinforcement and rewards certainly work, but in a restricted context" -- restricted, that is, to tasks that are not especially interesting. - -Researchers offer several explanations for their surprising findings -about rewards and performance. - -First, rewards encourage people to focus narrowly on a task, to do it -as quickly as possible and to take few risks. "If they feel that -'this is something I have to get through to get the prize,' they're -going to be less creative," Amabile said. - -Second, people come to see themselves as being controlled by the -reward. They feel less autonomous, and this may interfere with -performance. "To the extent one's experience of being -self-determined is limited," said Richard Ryan, associate psychology -professor at the University of Rochester, "one's creativity will be -reduced as well." - -Finally, extrinsic rewards can erode intrinsic interest. People who -see themselves as working for money, approval or competitive success -find their tasks less pleasurable, and therefore do not do them as -well. - -The last explanation reflects 15 years of work by Ryan's mentor at the -University of Rochester, Edward Deci. In 1971, Deci showed that -"money may work to buy off one's intrinsic motivation for an activity" -on a long-term basis. Ten years later, Deci and his colleagues -demonstrated that trying to best others has the same effect. Students -who competed to solve a puzzle quickly were less likely than those who -were not competing to keep working at it once the experiment was over. - -Control plays role - -There is general agreement, however, that not all rewards have the -same effect. Offering a flat fee for participating in an experiment - -similar to an hourly wage in the workplace - usually does not reduce -intrinsic motivation. It is only when the rewards are based on -performing a given task or doing a good job at it - analogous to -piece-rate payment and bonuses, respectively - that the problem -develops. - -The key, then, lies in how a reward is experienced. If we come to -view ourselves as working to get something, we will no longer find -that activity worth doing in its own right. - -There is an old joke that nicely illustrates the principle. An -elderly man, harassed by the taunts of neighborhood children, finally -devises a scheme. He offered to pay each child a dollar if they would -all return Tuesday and yell their insults again. They did so eagerly -and received the money, but he told them he could only pay 25 cents on -Wednesday. When they returned, insulted him again and collected their -quarters, he informed them that Thursday's rate would be just a penny. -"Forget it," they said - and never taunted him again. - -Means to and end - -In a 1982 study, Stanford psychologist Mark L. Lepper showed that any -task, no matter how enjoyable it once seemed, would be devalued if it -were presented as a means rather than an end. He told a group of -preschoolers they could not engage in one activity they liked until -they first took part in another. Although they had enjoyed both -activities equally, the children came to dislike the task that was a -prerequisite for the other. - -It should not be surprising that when verbal feedback is experienced -as controlling, the effect on motivation can be similar to that of -payment. In a study of corporate employees, Ryan found that those who -were told, "Good, you're doing as you /should/" were "significantly -less intrinsically motivated than those who received feedback -informationally." - -There's a difference, Ryan says, between saying, "I'm giving you this -reward because I recognize the value of your work" and "You're getting -this reward because you've lived up to my standards." - -A different but related set of problems exists in the case of -creativity. Artists must make a living, of course, but Amabile -emphasizes that "the negative impact on creativity of working for -rewards can be minimized" by playing down the significance of these -rewards and trying not to use them in a controlling way. Creative -work, the research suggests, cannot be forced, but only allowed to -happen. - -/Alfie Kohn, a Cambridge, MA writer, is the author of "No Contest: The -Case Against Competition," recently published by Houghton Mifflin Co., -Boston, MA. ISBN 0-395-39387-6. / diff --git a/etc/SERVICE b/etc/SERVICE deleted file mode 100644 index eed62ea60aa..00000000000 --- a/etc/SERVICE +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11 +0,0 @@ -GNU Service Directory ---------------------- - -Please see for a list of -people who have asked to be listed as offering support services for -GNU software, including GNU Emacs, for a fee or in some cases at no -charge. - -Note added January 2014: -This file is obsolete and will be removed in future. -Please update any links to use the above URL. diff --git a/etc/copying.paper b/etc/copying.paper deleted file mode 100644 index e0a478aed06..00000000000 --- a/etc/copying.paper +++ /dev/null @@ -1,819 +0,0 @@ -(For more information about the GNU project and free software, -look at the files `GNU', `COPYING', and `DISTRIB', in the same -directory as this file.) - - - Why Software Should Be Free - - by Richard Stallman - - (Version of April 24, 1992) - - Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, Free Software Foundation, Inc. - Verbatim copying and redistribution is permitted - without royalty; alteration is not permitted. - -Introduction -************ - - The existence of software inevitably raises the question of how -decisions about its use should be made. For example, suppose one -individual who has a copy of a program meets another who would like a -copy. It is possible for them to copy the program; who should decide -whether this is done? The individuals involved? Or another party, -called the "owner"? - - Software developers typically consider these questions on the -assumption that the criterion for the answer is to maximize developers' -profits. The political power of business has led to the government -adoption of both this criterion and the answer proposed by the -developers: that the program has an owner, typically a corporation -associated with its development. - - I would like to consider the same question using a different -criterion: the prosperity and freedom of the public in general. - - This answer cannot be decided by current law--the law should conform -to ethics, not the other way around. Nor does current practice decide -this question, although it may suggest possible answers. The only way -to judge is to see who is helped and who is hurt by recognizing owners -of software, why, and how much. In other words, we should perform a -cost-benefit analysis on behalf of society as a whole, taking account of -individual freedom as well as production of material goods. - - In this essay, I will describe the effects of having owners, and show -that the results are detrimental. My conclusion is that programmers -have the duty to encourage others to share, redistribute, study and -improve the software we write: in other words, to write "free" -software.(1) - -How Owners Justify Their Power -****************************** - - Those who benefit from the current system where programs are property -offer two arguments in support of their claims to own programs: the -emotional argument and the economic argument. - - The emotional argument goes like this: "I put my sweat, my heart, my -soul into this program. It comes from *me*, it's *mine*!" - - This argument does not require serious refutation. The feeling of -attachment is one that programmers can cultivate when it suits them; it -is not inevitable. Consider, for example, how willingly the same -programmers usually sign over all rights to a large corporation for a -salary; the emotional attachment mysteriously vanishes. By contrast, -consider the great artists and artisans of medieval times, who didn't -even sign their names to their work. To them, the name of the artist -was not important. What mattered was that the work was done--and the -purpose it would serve. This view prevailed for hundreds of years. - - The economic argument goes like this: "I want to get rich (usually -described inaccurately as `making a living'), and if you don't allow me -to get rich by programming, then I won't program. Everyone else is like -me, so nobody will ever program. And then you'll be stuck with no -programs at all!" This threat is usually veiled as friendly advice -from the wise. - - I'll explain later why this threat is a bluff. First I want to -address an implicit assumption that is more visible in another -formulation of the argument. - - This formulation starts by comparing the social utility of a -proprietary program with that of no program, and then concludes that -proprietary software development is, on the whole, beneficial, and -should be encouraged. The fallacy here is in comparing only two -outcomes--proprietary software vs. no software--and assuming there are -no other possibilities. - - Given a system of intellectual property, software development is -usually linked with the existence of an owner who controls the -software's use. As long as this linkage exists, we are often faced -with the choice of proprietary software or none. However, this linkage -is not inherent or inevitable; it is a consequence of the specific -social/legal policy decision that we are questioning: the decision to -have owners. To formulate the choice as between proprietary software -vs. no software is begging the question. - -The Argument against Having Owners -********************************** - - The question at hand is, "Should development of software be linked -with having owners to restrict the use of it?" - - In order to decide this, we have to judge the effect on society of -each of those two activities *independently*: the effect of developing -the software (regardless of its terms of distribution), and the effect -of restricting its use (assuming the software has been developed). If -one of these activities is helpful and the other is harmful, we would be -better off dropping the linkage and doing only the helpful one. - - To put it another way, if restricting the distribution of a program -already developed is harmful to society overall, then an ethical -software developer will reject the option of doing so. - - To determine the effect of restricting sharing, we need to compare -the value to society of a restricted (i.e., proprietary) program with -that of the same program, available to everyone. This means comparing -two possible worlds. - - This analysis also addresses the simple counterargument sometimes -made that "the benefit to the neighbor of giving him or her a copy of a -program is cancelled by the harm done to the owner." This -counterargument assumes that the harm and the benefit are equal in -magnitude. The analysis involves comparing these magnitudes, and shows -that the benefit is much greater. - - To elucidate this argument, let's apply it in another area: road -construction. - - It would be possible to fund the construction of all roads with -tolls. This would entail having toll booths at all street corners. -Such a system would provide a great incentive to improve roads. It -would also have the virtue of causing the users of any given road to -pay for that road. However, a toll booth is an artificial obstruction -to smooth driving--artificial, because it is not a consequence of how -roads or cars work. - - Comparing free roads and toll roads by their usefulness, we find that -(all else being equal) roads without toll booths are cheaper to -construct, cheaper to run, safer, and more efficient to use.(2) In a -poor country, tolls may make the roads unavailable to many citizens. -The roads without toll booths thus offer more benefit to society at -less cost; they are preferable for society. Therefore, society should -choose to fund roads in another way, not by means of toll booths. Use -of roads, once built, should be free. - - When the advocates of toll booths propose them as *merely* a way of -raising funds, they distort the choice that is available. Toll booths -do raise funds, but they do something else as well: in effect, they -degrade the road. The toll road is not as good as the free road; giving -us more or technically superior roads may not be an improvement if this -means substituting toll roads for free roads. - - Of course, the construction of a free road does cost money, which the -public must somehow pay. However, this does not imply the inevitability -of toll booths. We who must in either case pay will get more value for -our money by buying a free road. - - I am not saying that a toll road is worse than no road at all. That -would be true if the toll were so great that hardly anyone used the -road--but this is an unlikely policy for a toll collector. However, as -long as the toll booths cause significant waste and inconvenience, it is -better to raise the funds in a less obstructive fashion. - - To apply the same argument to software development, I will now show -that having "toll booths" for useful software programs costs society -dearly: it makes the programs more expensive to construct, more -expensive to distribute, and less satisfying and efficient to use. It -will follow that program construction should be encouraged in some other -way. Then I will go on to explain other methods of encouraging and (to -the extent actually necessary) funding software development. - -The Harm Done by Obstructing Software -===================================== - - Consider for a moment that a program has been developed, and any -necessary payments for its development have been made; now society must -choose either to make it proprietary or allow free sharing and use. -Assume that the existence of the program and its availability is a -desirable thing.(3) - - Restrictions on the distribution and modification of the program -cannot facilitate its use. They can only interfere. So the effect can -only be negative. But how much? And what kind? - - Three different levels of material harm come from such obstruction: - - * Fewer people use the program. - - * None of the users can adapt or fix the program. - - * Other developers cannot learn from the program, or base new work - on it. - - Each level of material harm has a concomitant form of psychosocial -harm. This refers to the effect that people's decisions have on their -subsequent feelings, attitudes and predispositions. These changes in -people's ways of thinking will then have a further effect on their -relationships with their fellow citizens, and can have material -consequences. - - The three levels of material harm waste part of the value that the -program could contribute, but they cannot reduce it to zero. If they -waste nearly all the value of the program, then writing the program -harms society by at most the effort that went into writing the program. -Arguably a program that is profitable to sell must provide some net -direct material benefit. - - However, taking account of the concomitant psychosocial harm, there -is no limit to the harm that proprietary software development can do. - -Obstructing Use of Programs -=========================== - - The first level of harm impedes the simple use of a program. A copy -of a program has nearly zero marginal cost (and you can pay this cost by -doing the work yourself), so in a free market, it would have nearly zero -price. A license fee is a significant disincentive to use the program. -If a widely-useful program is proprietary, far fewer people will use it. - - It is easy to show that the total contribution of a program to -society is reduced by assigning an owner to it. Each potential user of -the program, faced with the need to pay to use it, may choose to pay, -or may forego use of the program. When a user chooses to pay, this is a -zero-sum transfer of wealth between two parties. But each time someone -chooses to forego use of the program, this harms that person without -benefiting anyone. The sum of negative numbers and zeros must be -negative. - - But this does not reduce the amount of work it takes to *develop* -the program. As a result, the efficiency of the whole process, in -delivered user satisfaction per hour of work, is reduced. - - This reflects a crucial difference between copies of programs and -cars, chairs, or sandwiches. There is no copying machine for material -objects outside of science fiction. But programs are easy to copy; -anyone can produce as many copies as are wanted, with very little -effort. This isn't true for material objects because matter is -conserved: each new copy has to be built from raw materials in the same -way that the first copy was built. - - With material objects, a disincentive to use them makes sense, -because fewer objects bought means less raw materials and work needed -to make them. It's true that there is usually also a startup cost, a -development cost, which is spread over the production run. But as long -as the marginal cost of production is significant, adding a share of the -development cost does not make a qualitative difference. And it does -not require restrictions on the freedom of ordinary users. - - However, imposing a price on something that would otherwise be free -is a qualitative change. A centrally-imposed fee for software -distribution becomes a powerful disincentive. - - What's more, central production as now practiced is inefficient even -as a means of delivering copies of software. This system involves -enclosing physical disks or tapes in superfluous packaging, shipping -large numbers of them around the world, and storing them for sale. This -cost is presented as an expense of doing business; in truth, it is part -of the waste caused by having owners. - -Damaging Social Cohesion -======================== - - Suppose that both you and your neighbor would find it useful to run a -certain program. In ethical concern for your neighbor, you should feel -that proper handling of the situation will enable both of you to use it. -A proposal to permit only one of you to use the program, while -restraining the other, is divisive; neither you nor your neighbor should -find it acceptable. - - Signing a typical software license agreement means betraying your -neighbor: "I promise to deprive my neighbor of this program so that I -can have a copy for myself." People who make such choices feel -internal psychological pressure to justify them, by downgrading the -importance of helping one's neighbors--thus public spirit suffers. -This is psychosocial harm associated with the material harm of -discouraging use of the program. - - Many users unconsciously recognize the wrong of refusing to share, so -they decide to ignore the licenses and laws, and share programs anyway. -But they often feel guilty about doing so. They know that they must -break the laws in order to be good neighbors, but they still consider -the laws authoritative, and they conclude that being a good neighbor -(which they are) is naughty or shameful. That is also a kind of -psychosocial harm, but one can escape it by deciding that these licenses -and laws have no moral force. - - Programmers also suffer psychosocial harm knowing that many users -will not be allowed to use their work. This leads to an attitude of -cynicism or denial. A programmer may describe enthusiastically the -work that he finds technically exciting; then when asked, "Will I be -permitted to use it?", his face falls, and he admits the answer is no. -To avoid feeling discouraged, he either ignores this fact most of the -time or adopts a cynical stance designed to minimize the importance of -it. - - Since the age of Reagan, the greatest scarcity in the United States -is not technical innovation, but rather the willingness to work together -for the public good. It makes no sense to encourage the former at the -expense of the latter. - -Obstructing Custom Adaptation of Programs -========================================= - - The second level of material harm is the inability to adapt programs. -The ease of modification of software is one of its great advantages over -older technology. But most commercially available software isn't -available for modification, even after you buy it. It's available for -you to take it or leave it, as a black box--that is all. - - A program that you can run consists of a series of numbers whose -meaning is obscure. No one, not even a good programmer, can easily -change the numbers to make the program do something different. - - Programmers normally work with the "source code" for a program, which -is written in a programming language such as Fortran or C. It uses -names to designate the data being used and the parts of the program, and -it represents operations with symbols such as `+' for addition and `-' -for subtraction. It is designed to help programmers read and change -programs. Here is an example; a program to calculate the distance -between two points in a plane: - - float - distance (p0, p1) - struct point p0, p1; - { - float xdist = p1.x - p0.x; - float ydist = p1.y - p0.y; - return sqrt (xdist * xdist + ydist * ydist); - } - - Here is the same program in executable form, on the computer I -normally use: - - 1314258944 -232267772 -231844864 1634862 - 1411907592 -231844736 2159150 1420296208 - -234880989 -234879837 -234879966 -232295424 - 1644167167 -3214848 1090581031 1962942495 - 572518958 -803143692 1314803317 - - Source code is useful (at least potentially) to every user of a -program. But most users are not allowed to have copies of the source -code. Usually the source code for a proprietary program is kept secret -by the owner, lest anybody else learn something from it. Users receive -only the files of incomprehensible numbers that the computer will -execute. This means that only the program's owner can change the -program. - - A friend once told me of working as a programmer in a bank for about -six months, writing a program similar to something that was commercially -available. She believed that if she could have gotten source code for -that commercially available program, it could easily have been adapted -to their needs. The bank was willing to pay for this, but was not -permitted to--the source code was a secret. So she had to do six -months of make-work, work that counts in the GNP but was actually waste. - - The MIT Artificial Intelligence lab (AI lab) received a graphics -printer as a gift from Xerox around 1977. It was run by free software -to which we added many convenient features. For example, the software -would notify a user immediately on completion of a print job. Whenever -the printer had trouble, such as a paper jam or running out of paper, -the software would immediately notify all users who had print jobs -queued. These features facilitated smooth operation. - - Later Xerox gave the AI lab a newer, faster printer, one of the first -laser printers. It was driven by proprietary software that ran in a -separate dedicated computer, so we couldn't add any of our favorite -features. We could arrange to send a notification when a print job was -sent to the dedicated computer, but not when the job was actually -printed (and the delay was usually considerable). There was no way to -find out when the job was actually printed; you could only guess. And -no one was informed when there was a paper jam, so the printer often -went for an hour without being fixed. - - The system programmers at the AI lab were capable of fixing such -problems, probably as capable as the original authors of the program. -Xerox was uninterested in fixing them, and chose to prevent us, so we -were forced to accept the problems. They were never fixed. - - Most good programmers have experienced this frustration. The bank -could afford to solve the problem by writing a new program from -scratch, but a typical user, no matter how skilled, can only give up. - - Giving up causes psychosocial harm--to the spirit of self-reliance. -It is demoralizing to live in a house that you cannot rearrange to suit -your needs. It leads to resignation and discouragement, which can -spread to affect other aspects of one's life. People who feel this way -are unhappy and do not do good work. - - Imagine what it would be like if recipes were hoarded in the same -fashion as software. You might say, "How do I change this recipe to -take out the salt?", and the great chef would respond, "How dare you -insult my recipe, the child of my brain and my palate, by trying to -tamper with it? You don't have the judgment to change my recipe and -make it work right!" - - "But my doctor says I'm not supposed to eat salt! What can I do? -Will you take out the salt for me?" - - "I would be glad to do that; my fee is only $50,000." Since the -owner has a monopoly on changes, the fee tends to be large. "However, -right now I don't have time. I am busy with a commission to design a -new recipe for ship's biscuit for the Navy Department. I might get -around to you in about two years." - -Obstructing Software Development -================================ - - The third level of material harm affects software development. -Software development used to be an evolutionary process, where a person -would take an existing program and rewrite parts of it for one new -feature, and then another person would rewrite parts to add another -feature; in some cases, this continued over a period of twenty years. -Meanwhile, parts of the program would be "cannibalized" to form the -beginnings of other programs. - - The existence of owners prevents this kind of evolution, making it -necessary to start from scratch when developing a program. It also -prevents new practitioners from studying existing programs to learn -useful techniques or even how large programs can be structured. - - Owners also obstruct education. I have met bright students in -computer science who have never seen the source code of a large -program. They may be good at writing small programs, but they can't -begin to learn the different skills of writing large ones if they can't -see how others have done it. - - In any intellectual field, one can reach greater heights by standing -on the shoulders of others. But that is no longer generally allowed in -the software field--you can only stand on the shoulders of the other -people *in your own company*. - - The associated psychosocial harm affects the spirit of scientific -cooperation, which used to be so strong that scientists would cooperate -even when their countries were at war. In this spirit, Japanese -oceanographers abandoning their lab on an island in the Pacific -carefully preserved their work for the invading U.S. Marines, and left a -note asking them to take good care of it. - - Conflict for profit has destroyed what international conflict spared. -Nowadays scientists in many fields don't publish enough in their papers -to enable others to replicate the experiment. They publish only enough -to let readers marvel at how much they were able to do. This is -certainly true in computer science, where the source code for the -programs reported on is usually secret. - -It Does Not Matter How Sharing Is Restricted -============================================ - - I have been discussing the effects of preventing people from copying, -changing and building on a program. I have not specified how this -obstruction is carried out, because that doesn't affect the conclusion. -Whether it is done by copy protection, or copyright, or licenses, or -encryption, or ROM cards, or hardware serial numbers, if it *succeeds* -in preventing use, it does harm. - - Users do consider some of these methods more obnoxious than others. -I suggest that the methods most hated are those that accomplish their -objective. - -Software Should be Free -======================= - - I have shown how ownership of a program--the power to restrict -changing or copying it--is obstructive. Its negative effects are -widespread and important. It follows that society shouldn't have -owners for programs. - - Another way to understand this is that what society needs is free -software, and proprietary software is a poor substitute. Encouraging -the substitute is not a rational way to get what we need. - - Vaclav Havel has advised us to "Work for something because it is -good, not just because it stands a chance to succeed." A business -making proprietary software stands a chance of success in its own narrow -terms, but it is not what is good for society. - -Why People Will Develop Software -******************************** - - If we eliminate intellectual property as a means of encouraging -people to develop software, at first less software will be developed, -but that software will be more useful. It is not clear whether the -overall delivered user satisfaction will be less; but if it is, or if -we wish to increase it anyway, there are other ways to encourage -development, just as there are ways besides toll booths to raise money -for streets. Before I talk about how that can be done, first I want to -question how much artificial encouragement is truly necessary. - -Programming is Fun -================== - - There are some lines of work that few will enter except for money; -road construction, for example. There are other fields of study and -art in which there is little chance to become rich, which people enter -for their fascination or their perceived value to society. Examples -include mathematical logic, classical music, and archaeology; and -political organizing among working people. People compete, more sadly -than bitterly, for the few funded positions available, none of which is -funded very well. They may even pay for the chance to work in the -field, if they can afford to. - - Such a field can transform itself overnight if it begins to offer the -possibility of getting rich. When one worker gets rich, others demand -the same opportunity. Soon all may demand large sums of money for doing -what they used to do for pleasure. When another couple of years go by, -everyone connected with the field will deride the idea that work would -be done in the field without large financial returns. They will advise -social planners to ensure that these returns are possible, prescribing -special privileges, powers and monopolies as necessary to do so. - - This change happened in the field of computer programming in the past -decade. Fifteen years ago, there were articles on "computer -addiction": users were "onlining" and had hundred-dollar-a-week habits. -It was generally understood that people frequently loved programming -enough to break up their marriages. Today, it is generally understood -that no one would program except for a high rate of pay. People have -forgotten what they knew fifteen years ago. - - When it is true at a given time that most people will work in a -certain field only for high pay, it need not remain true. The dynamic -of change can run in reverse, if society provides an impetus. If we -take away the possibility of great wealth, then after a while, when the -people have readjusted their attitudes, they will once again be eager -to work in the field for the joy of accomplishment. - - The question, "How can we pay programmers?", becomes an easier -question when we realize that it's not a matter of paying them a -fortune. A mere living is easier to raise. - -Funding Free Software -===================== - - Institutions that pay programmers do not have to be software houses. -Many other institutions already exist which can do this. - - Hardware manufacturers find it essential to support software -development even if they cannot control the use of the software. In -1970, much of their software was free because they did not consider -restricting it. Today, their increasing willingness to join -consortiums shows their realization that owning the software is not -what is really important for them. - - Universities conduct many programming projects. Today, they often -sell the results, but in the 1970s, they did not. Is there any doubt -that universities would develop free software if they were not allowed -to sell software? These projects could be supported by the same -government contracts and grants which now support proprietary software -development. - - It is common today for university researchers to get grants to -develop a system, develop it nearly to the point of completion and call -that "finished", and then start companies where they really finish the -project and make it usable. Sometimes they declare the unfinished -version "free"; if they are thoroughly corrupt, they instead get an -exclusive license from the university. This is not a secret; it is -openly admitted by everyone concerned. Yet if the researchers were not -exposed to the temptation to do these things, they would still do their -research. - - Programmers writing free software can make their living by selling -services related to the software. I have been hired to port the GNU C -compiler to new hardware, and to make user-interface extensions to GNU -Emacs. (I offer these improvements to the public once they are done.) -I also teach classes for which I am paid. - - I am not alone in working this way; there is now a successful, -growing corporation which does no other kind of work. Several other -companies also provide commercial support for the free software of the -GNU system. This is the beginning of the independent software support -industry-an industry that could become quite large if free software -becomes prevalent. It provides users with an option generally -unavailable for proprietary software, except to the very wealthy. - - New institutions such as the Free Software Foundation can also fund -programmers. Most of the foundation's funds come from users buying -tapes through the mail. The software on the tapes is free, which means -that every user has the freedom to copy it and change it, but many -nonetheless pay to get copies. (Recall that "free software" refers to -freedom, not to price.) Some users order tapes who already have a copy, -as a way of making a contribution they feel we deserve. The Foundation -also receives sizable donations from computer manufacturers. - - The Free Software Foundation is a charity, and its income is spent on -hiring as many programmers as possible. If it had been set up as a -business, distributing the same free software to the public for the same -fee, it would now provide a very good living for its founder. - - Because the Foundation is a charity, programmers often work for the -Foundation for half of what they could make elsewhere. They do this -because we are free of bureaucracy, and because they feel satisfaction -in knowing that their work will not be obstructed from use. Most of -all, they do it because programming is fun. In addition, volunteers -have written many useful programs for us. (Recently even technical -writers have begun to volunteer.) - - This confirms that programming is among the most fascinating of all -fields, along with music and art. We don't have to fear that no one -will want to program. - -What Do Users Owe to Developers? -================================ - - There is a good reason for users of software to feel a moral -obligation to contribute to its support. Developers of free software -are contributing to the users' activities, and it is both fair and in -the long term interest of the users to give them funds to continue. - - However, this does not apply to proprietary software developers, -since obstructionism deserves a punishment rather than a reward. - - We thus have a paradox: the developer of useful software is entitled -to the support of the users, but any attempt to turn this moral -obligation into a requirement destroys the basis for the obligation. A -developer can either deserve a reward or demand it, but not both. - - I believe that an ethical developer faced with this paradox must act -so as to deserve the reward, but should also entreat the users for -voluntary donations. Eventually the users will learn to support -developers without coercion, just as they have learned to support public -radio and television stations. - -What Is Software Productivity? -****************************** - - If software were free, there would still be programmers, but perhaps -fewer of them. Would this be bad for society? - - Not necessarily. Today the advanced nations have fewer farmers than -in 1900, but we do not think this is bad for society, because the few -deliver more food to the consumers than the many used to do. We call -this improved productivity. Free software would require far fewer -programmers to satisfy the demand, because of increased software -productivity at all levels: - - * Wider use of each program that is developed. - - * The ability to adapt existing programs for customization instead - of starting from scratch. - - * Better education of programmers. - - * The elimination of duplicate development effort. - - Those who object to cooperation because it would result in the -employment of fewer programmers, are actually objecting to increased -productivity. Yet these people usually accept the widely-held belief -that the software industry needs increased productivity. How is this? - - "Software productivity" can mean two different things: the overall -productivity of all software development, or the productivity of -individual projects. Overall productivity is what society would like to -improve, and the most straightforward way to do this is to eliminate the -artificial obstacles to cooperation which reduce it. But researchers -who study the field of "software productivity" focus only on the -second, limited, sense of the term, where improvement requires difficult -technological advances. - -Is Competition Inevitable? -************************** - - Is it inevitable that people will try to compete, to surpass their -rivals in society? Perhaps it is. But competition itself is not -harmful; the harmful thing is *combat*. - - There are many ways to compete. Competition can consist of trying to -achieve ever more, to outdo what others have done. For example, in the -old days, there was competition among programming wizards--competition -for who could make the computer do the most amazing thing, or for who -could make the shortest or fastest program for a given task. This kind -of competition can benefit everyone, *as long as* the spirit of good -sportsmanship is maintained. - - Constructive competition is enough competition to motivate people to -great efforts. A number of people are competing to be the first to have -visited all the countries on Earth; some even spend fortunes trying to -do this. But they do not bribe ship captains to strand their rivals on -desert islands. They are content to let the best person win. - - Competition becomes combat when the competitors begin trying to -impede each other instead of advancing themselves--when "Let the best -person win" gives way to "Let me win, best or not." Proprietary -software is harmful, not because it is a form of competition, but -because it is a form of combat among the citizens of our society. - - Competition in business is not necessarily combat. For example, when -two grocery stores compete, their entire effort is to improve their own -operations, not to sabotage the rival. But this does not demonstrate a -special commitment to business ethics; rather, there is little scope for -combat in this line of business short of physical violence. Not all -areas of business share this characteristic. Withholding information -that could help everyone advance is a form of combat. - - Business ideology does not prepare people to resist the temptation to -combat the competition. Some forms of combat have been made banned with -anti-trust laws, truth in advertising laws, and so on, but rather than -generalizing this to a principled rejection of combat in general, -executives invent other forms of combat which are not specifically -prohibited. Society's resources are squandered on the economic -equivalent of factional civil war. - -"Why Don't You Move to Russia?" -******************************* - - In the United States, any advocate of other than the most extreme -form of laissez-faire selfishness has often heard this accusation. For -example, it is leveled against the supporters of a national health care -system, such as is found in all the other industrialized nations of the -free world. It is leveled against the advocates of public support for -the arts, also universal in advanced nations. The idea that citizens -have any obligation to the public good is identified in America with -Communism. But how similar are these ideas? - - Communism as was practiced in the Soviet Union was a system of -central control where all activity was regimented, supposedly for the -common good, but actually for the sake of the members of the Communist -party. And where copying equipment was closely guarded to prevent -illegal copying. - - The American system of intellectual property exercises central -control over distribution of a program, and guards copying equipment -with automatic copying protection schemes to prevent illegal copying. - - By contrast, I am working to build a system where people are free to -decide their own actions; in particular, free to help their neighbors, -and free to alter and improve the tools which they use in their daily -lives. A system based on voluntary cooperation, and decentralization. - - Thus, if we are to judge views by their resemblance to Russian -Communism, it is the software owners who are the Communists. - -The Question of Premises -************************ - - I make the assumption in this paper that a user of software is no -less important than an author, or even an author's employer. In other -words, their interests and needs have equal weight, when we decide -which course of action is best. - - This premise is not universally accepted. Many maintain that an -author's employer is fundamentally more important than anyone else. -They say, for example, that the purpose of having owners of software is -to give the author's employer the advantage he deserves--regardless of -how this may affect the public. - - It is no use trying to prove or disprove these premises. Proof -requires shared premises. So most of what I have to say is addressed -only to those who share the premises I use, or at least are interested -in what their consequences are. For those who believe that the owners -are more important than everyone else, this paper is simply irrelevant. - - But why would a large number of Americans accept a premise which -elevates certain people in importance above everyone else? Partly -because of the belief that this premise is part of the legal traditions -of American society. Some people feel that doubting the premise means -challenging the basis of society. - - It is important for these people to know that this premise is not -part of our legal tradition. It never has been. - - Thus, the Constitution says that the purpose of copyright is to -"promote the progress of science and the useful arts." The Supreme -Court has elaborated on this, stating in `Fox Film vs. Doyal' that "The -sole interest of the United States and the primary object in conferring -the [copyright] monopoly lie in the general benefits derived by the -public from the labors of authors." - - We are not required to agree with the Constitution or the Supreme -Court. (At one time, they both condoned slavery.) So their positions -do not disprove the owner supremacy premise. But I hope that the -awareness that this is a radical right-wing assumption rather than a -traditionally recognized one will weaken its appeal. - -Conclusion -********** - - We like to think that our society encourages helping your neighbor; -but each time we reward someone for obstructionism, or admire them for -the wealth they have gained in this way, we are sending the opposite -message. - - Software hoarding is one form of our general willingness to disregard -the welfare of society for personal gain. We can trace this disregard -from Ronald Reagan to Jim Bakker, from Ivan Boesky to Exxon, from -failing banks to failing schools. We can measure it with the size of -the homeless population and the prison population. The antisocial -spirit feeds on itself, because the more we see that other people will -not help us, the more it seems futile to help them. Thus society decays -into a jungle. - - If we don't want to live in a jungle, we must change our attitudes. -We must start sending the message that a good citizen is one who -cooperates when appropriate, not one who is successful at taking from -others. I hope that the free software movement will contribute to -this: at least in one area, we will replace the jungle with a more -efficient system which encourages and runs on voluntary cooperation. - - ---------- Footnotes ---------- - - (1) The word "free" in "free software" refers to freedom, not to -price; the price paid for a copy of a free program may be zero, or -small, or (rarely) quite large. - - (2) The issues of pollution and traffic congestion do not alter -this conclusion. If we wish to make driving more expensive to -discourage driving in general, it is disadvantageous to do this using -toll booths, which contribute to both pollution and congestion. A tax -on gasoline is much better. Likewise, a desire to enhance safety by -limiting maximum speed is not relevant; a free access road enhances the -average speed by avoiding stops and delays, for any given speed limit. - - (3) One might regard a particular computer program as a harmful -thing that should not be available at all, like the Lotus Marketplace -database of personal information, which was withdrawn from sale due to -public disapproval. Most of what I say does not apply to this case, -but it makes little sense to argue for having an owner on the grounds -that the owner will make the program less available. The owner will -not make it *completely* unavailable, as one would wish in the case of -a program whose use is considered destructive. - diff --git a/etc/publicsuffix.txt b/etc/publicsuffix.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 45cd95aca30..00000000000 --- a/etc/publicsuffix.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5189 +0,0 @@ -// ***** BEGIN LICENSE BLOCK ***** -// Version: MPL 1.1/GPL 2.0/LGPL 2.1 -// -// The contents of this file are subject to the Mozilla Public License Version -// 1.1 (the "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance with -// the License. You may obtain a copy of the License at -// http://www.mozilla.org/MPL/ -// -// Software distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" basis, -// WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. See the License -// for the specific language governing rights and limitations under the -// License. -// -// The Original Code is the Public Suffix List. -// -// The Initial Developer of the Original Code is -// Jo Hermans . -// Portions created by the Initial Developer are Copyright (C) 2007 -// the Initial Developer. All Rights Reserved. -// -// Contributor(s): -// Ruben Arakelyan -// Gervase Markham -// Pamela Greene -// David Triendl -// Jothan Frakes -// The kind representatives of many TLD registries -// -// Alternatively, the contents of this file may be used under the terms of -// either the GNU General Public License Version 2 or later (the "GPL"), or -// the GNU Lesser General Public License Version 2.1 or later (the "LGPL"), -// in which case the provisions of the GPL or the LGPL are applicable instead -// of those above. If you wish to allow use of your version of this file only -// under the terms of either the GPL or the LGPL, and not to allow others to -// use your version of this file under the terms of the MPL, indicate your -// decision by deleting the provisions above and replace them with the notice -// and other provisions required by the GPL or the LGPL. If you do not delete -// the provisions above, a recipient may use your version of this file under -// the terms of any one of the MPL, the GPL or the LGPL. -// -// ***** END LICENSE BLOCK ***** - -// ac : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ac -ac -com.ac -edu.ac -gov.ac -net.ac -mil.ac -org.ac - -// ad : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ad -ad -nom.ad - -// ae : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ae -// see also: "Domain Name Eligibility Policy" at http://www.aeda.ae/eng/aepolicy.php -ae -co.ae -net.ae -org.ae -sch.ae -ac.ae -gov.ae -mil.ae - -// aero : see http://www.information.aero/index.php?id=66 -aero -accident-investigation.aero -accident-prevention.aero -aerobatic.aero -aeroclub.aero -aerodrome.aero -agents.aero -aircraft.aero -airline.aero -airport.aero -air-surveillance.aero -airtraffic.aero -air-traffic-control.aero -ambulance.aero -amusement.aero -association.aero -author.aero -ballooning.aero -broker.aero -caa.aero -cargo.aero -catering.aero -certification.aero -championship.aero -charter.aero -civilaviation.aero -club.aero -conference.aero -consultant.aero -consulting.aero -control.aero -council.aero -crew.aero -design.aero -dgca.aero -educator.aero -emergency.aero -engine.aero -engineer.aero -entertainment.aero -equipment.aero -exchange.aero -express.aero -federation.aero -flight.aero -freight.aero -fuel.aero -gliding.aero -government.aero -groundhandling.aero -group.aero -hanggliding.aero -homebuilt.aero -insurance.aero -journal.aero -journalist.aero -leasing.aero -logistics.aero -magazine.aero -maintenance.aero -marketplace.aero -media.aero -microlight.aero -modelling.aero -navigation.aero -parachuting.aero -paragliding.aero -passenger-association.aero -pilot.aero -press.aero -production.aero -recreation.aero -repbody.aero -res.aero -research.aero -rotorcraft.aero -safety.aero -scientist.aero -services.aero -show.aero -skydiving.aero -software.aero -student.aero -taxi.aero -trader.aero -trading.aero -trainer.aero -union.aero -workinggroup.aero -works.aero - -// af : http://www.nic.af/help.jsp -af -gov.af -com.af -org.af -net.af -edu.af - -// ag : http://www.nic.ag/prices.htm -ag -com.ag -org.ag -net.ag -co.ag -nom.ag - -// ai : http://nic.com.ai/ -ai -off.ai -com.ai -net.ai -org.ai - -// al : http://www.ert.gov.al/ert_alb/faq_det.html?Id=31 -al -com.al -edu.al -gov.al -mil.al -net.al -org.al - -// am : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.am -am - -// an : http://www.una.an/an_domreg/default.asp -an -com.an -net.an -org.an -edu.an - -// ao : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ao -// http://www.dns.ao/REGISTR.DOC -ao -ed.ao -gv.ao -og.ao -co.ao -pb.ao -it.ao - -// aq : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.aq -aq - -// ar : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ar -*.ar -!congresodelalengua3.ar -!educ.ar -!gobiernoelectronico.ar -!mecon.ar -!nacion.ar -!nic.ar -!promocion.ar -!retina.ar -!uba.ar - -// arpa : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.arpa -// Confirmed by registry 2008-06-18 -e164.arpa -in-addr.arpa -ip6.arpa -iris.arpa -uri.arpa -urn.arpa - -// as : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.as -as -gov.as - -// asia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.asia -asia - -// at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.at -// Confirmed by registry 2008-06-17 -at -ac.at -co.at -gv.at -or.at - -// http://www.info.at/ -biz.at -info.at - -// priv.at : http://www.nic.priv.at/ -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-09 -priv.at - -// au : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.au -*.au -// au geographical names (vic.au etc... are covered above) -act.edu.au -nsw.edu.au -nt.edu.au -qld.edu.au -sa.edu.au -tas.edu.au -vic.edu.au -wa.edu.au -act.gov.au -// Removed at request of Shae.Donelan@services.nsw.gov.au, 2010-03-04 -// nsw.gov.au -nt.gov.au -qld.gov.au -sa.gov.au -tas.gov.au -vic.gov.au -wa.gov.au -// CGDNs - http://www.aucd.org.au/ -act.au -nsw.au -nt.au -qld.au -sa.au -tas.au -vic.au -wa.au - -// aw : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.aw -aw -com.aw - -// ax : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ax -ax - -// az : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.az -az -com.az -net.az -int.az -gov.az -org.az -edu.az -info.az -pp.az -mil.az -name.az -pro.az -biz.az - -// ba : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ba -ba -org.ba -net.ba -edu.ba -gov.ba -mil.ba -unsa.ba -unbi.ba -co.ba -com.ba -rs.ba - -// bb : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bb -bb -biz.bb -com.bb -edu.bb -gov.bb -info.bb -net.bb -org.bb -store.bb - -// bd : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bd -*.bd - -// be : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.be -// Confirmed by registry 2008-06-08 -be -ac.be - -// bf : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bf -bf -gov.bf - -// bg : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bg -// https://www.register.bg/user/static/rules/en/index.html -bg -a.bg -b.bg -c.bg -d.bg -e.bg -f.bg -g.bg -h.bg -i.bg -j.bg -k.bg -l.bg -m.bg -n.bg -o.bg -p.bg -q.bg -r.bg -s.bg -t.bg -u.bg -v.bg -w.bg -x.bg -y.bg -z.bg -0.bg -1.bg -2.bg -3.bg -4.bg -5.bg -6.bg -7.bg -8.bg -9.bg - -// bh : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bh -bh -com.bh -edu.bh -net.bh -org.bh -gov.bh - -// bi : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bi -// http://whois.nic.bi/ -bi -co.bi -com.bi -edu.bi -or.bi -org.bi - -// biz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.biz -biz - -// bj : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bj -bj -asso.bj -barreau.bj -gouv.bj - -// bm : http://www.bermudanic.bm/dnr-text.txt -bm -com.bm -edu.bm -gov.bm -net.bm -org.bm - -// bn : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bn -*.bn - -// bo : http://www.nic.bo/ -bo -com.bo -edu.bo -gov.bo -gob.bo -int.bo -org.bo -net.bo -mil.bo -tv.bo - -// br : http://registro.br/dominio/dpn.html -// Updated by registry 2011-03-01 -br -adm.br -adv.br -agr.br -am.br -arq.br -art.br -ato.br -b.br -bio.br -blog.br -bmd.br -can.br -cim.br -cng.br -cnt.br -com.br -coop.br -ecn.br -edu.br -emp.br -eng.br -esp.br -etc.br -eti.br -far.br -flog.br -fm.br -fnd.br -fot.br -fst.br -g12.br -ggf.br -gov.br -imb.br -ind.br -inf.br -jor.br -jus.br -lel.br -mat.br -med.br -mil.br -mus.br -net.br -nom.br -not.br -ntr.br -odo.br -org.br -ppg.br -pro.br -psc.br -psi.br -qsl.br -radio.br -rec.br -slg.br -srv.br -taxi.br -teo.br -tmp.br -trd.br -tur.br -tv.br -vet.br -vlog.br -wiki.br -zlg.br - -// bs : http://www.nic.bs/rules.html -bs -com.bs -net.bs -org.bs -edu.bs -gov.bs - -// bt : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bt -bt -com.bt -edu.bt -gov.bt -net.bt -org.bt - -// bv : No registrations at this time. -// Submitted by registry 2006-06-16 - -// bw : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bw -// http://www.gobin.info/domainname/bw.doc -// list of other 2nd level tlds ? -bw -co.bw -org.bw - -// by : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.by -// http://tld.by/rules_2006_en.html -// list of other 2nd level tlds ? -by -gov.by -mil.by -// Official information does not indicate that com.by is a reserved -// second-level domain, but it's being used as one (see www.google.com.by and -// www.yahoo.com.by, for example), so we list it here for safety's sake. -com.by - -// http://hoster.by/ -of.by - -// bz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bz -// http://www.belizenic.bz/ -bz -com.bz -net.bz -org.bz -edu.bz -gov.bz - -// ca : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ca -ca -// ca geographical names -ab.ca -bc.ca -mb.ca -nb.ca -nf.ca -nl.ca -ns.ca -nt.ca -nu.ca -on.ca -pe.ca -qc.ca -sk.ca -yk.ca -// gc.ca: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gc.ca -// see also: http://registry.gc.ca/en/SubdomainFAQ -gc.ca - -// cat : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cat -cat - -// cc : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cc -cc - -// cd : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cd -// see also: https://www.nic.cd/domain/insertDomain_2.jsp?act=1 -cd -gov.cd - -// cf : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cf -cf - -// cg : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cg -cg - -// ch : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ch -ch - -// ci : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ci -// http://www.nic.ci/index.php?page=charte -ci -org.ci -or.ci -com.ci -co.ci -edu.ci -ed.ci -ac.ci -net.ci -go.ci -asso.ci -aéroport.ci -int.ci -presse.ci -md.ci -gouv.ci - -// ck : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ck -*.ck - -// cl : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cl -cl -gov.cl -gob.cl - -// cm : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cm -cm -gov.cm - -// cn : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cn -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-11 -cn -ac.cn -com.cn -edu.cn -gov.cn -net.cn -org.cn -mil.cn -公司.cn -网络.cn -網絡.cn -// cn geographic names -ah.cn -bj.cn -cq.cn -fj.cn -gd.cn -gs.cn -gz.cn -gx.cn -ha.cn -hb.cn -he.cn -hi.cn -hl.cn -hn.cn -jl.cn -js.cn -jx.cn -ln.cn -nm.cn -nx.cn -qh.cn -sc.cn -sd.cn -sh.cn -sn.cn -sx.cn -tj.cn -xj.cn -xz.cn -yn.cn -zj.cn -hk.cn -mo.cn -tw.cn - -// co : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.co -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-11 -co -arts.co -com.co -edu.co -firm.co -gov.co -info.co -int.co -mil.co -net.co -nom.co -org.co -rec.co -web.co - -// com : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.com -com - -// CentralNic names : http://www.centralnic.com/names/domains -// Confirmed by registry 2008-06-09 -ar.com -br.com -cn.com -de.com -eu.com -gb.com -hu.com -jpn.com -kr.com -no.com -qc.com -ru.com -sa.com -se.com -uk.com -us.com -uy.com -za.com - -// Requested by Yngve Pettersen 2009-11-26 -operaunite.com - -// Requested by Eduardo Vela 2010-09-06 -appspot.com - -// coop : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.coop -coop - -// cr : http://www.nic.cr/niccr_publico/showRegistroDominiosScreen.do -cr -ac.cr -co.cr -ed.cr -fi.cr -go.cr -or.cr -sa.cr - -// cu : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cu -cu -com.cu -edu.cu -org.cu -net.cu -gov.cu -inf.cu - -// cv : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cv -cv - -// cx : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cx -// list of other 2nd level tlds ? -cx -gov.cx - -// cy : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cy -*.cy - -// cz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cz -cz - -// de : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.de -// Confirmed by registry (with technical -// reservations) 2008-07-01 -de - -// dj : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.dj -dj - -// dk : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.dk -// Confirmed by registry 2008-06-17 -dk - -// dm : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.dm -dm -com.dm -net.dm -org.dm -edu.dm -gov.dm - -// do : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.do -do -art.do -com.do -edu.do -gob.do -gov.do -mil.do -net.do -org.do -sld.do -web.do - -// dz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.dz -dz -com.dz -org.dz -net.dz -gov.dz -edu.dz -asso.dz -pol.dz -art.dz - -// ec : http://www.nic.ec/reg/paso1.asp -// Submitted by registry 2008-07-04 -ec -com.ec -info.ec -net.ec -fin.ec -k12.ec -med.ec -pro.ec -org.ec -edu.ec -gov.ec -gob.ec -mil.ec - -// edu : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.edu -edu - -// ee : http://www.eenet.ee/EENet/dom_reeglid.html#lisa_B -ee -edu.ee -gov.ee -riik.ee -lib.ee -med.ee -com.ee -pri.ee -aip.ee -org.ee -fie.ee - -// eg : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.eg -eg -com.eg -edu.eg -eun.eg -gov.eg -mil.eg -name.eg -net.eg -org.eg -sci.eg - -// er : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.er -*.er - -// es : https://www.nic.es/site_ingles/ingles/dominios/index.html -es -com.es -nom.es -org.es -gob.es -edu.es - -// et : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.et -*.et - -// eu : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.eu -eu - -// fi : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.fi -fi -// aland.fi : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ax -// This domain is being phased out in favor of .ax. As there are still many -// domains under aland.fi, we still keep it on the list until aland.fi is -// completely removed. -// TODO: Check for updates (expected to be phased out around Q1/2009) -aland.fi -// iki.fi : Submitted by Hannu Aronsson 2009-11-05 -iki.fi - -// fj : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.fj -*.fj - -// fk : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.fk -*.fk - -// fm : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.fm -fm - -// fo : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.fo -fo - -// fr : http://www.afnic.fr/ -// domaines descriptifs : http://www.afnic.fr/obtenir/chartes/nommage-fr/annexe-descriptifs -fr -com.fr -asso.fr -nom.fr -prd.fr -presse.fr -tm.fr -// domaines sectoriels : http://www.afnic.fr/obtenir/chartes/nommage-fr/annexe-sectoriels -aeroport.fr -assedic.fr -avocat.fr -avoues.fr -cci.fr -chambagri.fr -chirurgiens-dentistes.fr -experts-comptables.fr -geometre-expert.fr -gouv.fr -greta.fr -huissier-justice.fr -medecin.fr -notaires.fr -pharmacien.fr -port.fr -veterinaire.fr - -// ga : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ga -ga - -// gb : This registry is effectively dormant -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-12 - -// gd : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gd -gd - -// ge : http://www.nic.net.ge/policy_en.pdf -ge -com.ge -edu.ge -gov.ge -org.ge -mil.ge -net.ge -pvt.ge - -// gf : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gf -gf - -// gg : http://www.channelisles.net/applic/avextn.shtml -gg -co.gg -org.gg -net.gg -sch.gg -gov.gg - -// gh : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gh -// see also: http://www.nic.gh/reg_now.php -// Although domains directly at second level are not possible at the moment, -// they have been possible for some time and may come back. -gh -com.gh -edu.gh -gov.gh -org.gh -mil.gh - -// gi : http://www.nic.gi/rules.html -gi -com.gi -ltd.gi -gov.gi -mod.gi -edu.gi -org.gi - -// gl : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gl -// http://nic.gl -gl - -// gm : http://www.nic.gm/htmlpages%5Cgm-policy.htm -gm - -// gn : http://psg.com/dns/gn/gn.txt -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-17 -ac.gn -com.gn -edu.gn -gov.gn -org.gn -net.gn - -// gov : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gov -gov - -// gp : http://www.nic.gp/index.php?lang=en -gp -com.gp -net.gp -mobi.gp -edu.gp -org.gp -asso.gp - -// gq : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gq -gq - -// gr : https://grweb.ics.forth.gr/english/1617-B-2005.html -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-09 -gr -com.gr -edu.gr -net.gr -org.gr -gov.gr - -// gs : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gs -gs - -// gt : http://www.gt/politicas.html -*.gt - -// gu : http://gadao.gov.gu/registration.txt -*.gu - -// gw : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gw -gw - -// gy : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gy -// http://registry.gy/ -gy -co.gy -com.gy -net.gy - -// hk : https://www.hkdnr.hk -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-11 -hk -com.hk -edu.hk -gov.hk -idv.hk -net.hk -org.hk -公司.hk -教育.hk -敎育.hk -政府.hk -個人.hk -个人.hk -箇人.hk -網络.hk -网络.hk -组織.hk -網絡.hk -网絡.hk -组织.hk -組織.hk -組织.hk - -// hm : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.hm -hm - -// hn : http://www.nic.hn/politicas/ps02,,05.html -hn -com.hn -edu.hn -org.hn -net.hn -mil.hn -gob.hn - -// hr : http://www.dns.hr/documents/pdf/HRTLD-regulations.pdf -hr -iz.hr -from.hr -name.hr -com.hr - -// ht : http://www.nic.ht/info/charte.cfm -ht -com.ht -shop.ht -firm.ht -info.ht -adult.ht -net.ht -pro.ht -org.ht -med.ht -art.ht -coop.ht -pol.ht -asso.ht -edu.ht -rel.ht -gouv.ht -perso.ht - -// hu : http://www.domain.hu/domain/English/sld.html -// Confirmed by registry 2008-06-12 -hu -co.hu -info.hu -org.hu -priv.hu -sport.hu -tm.hu -2000.hu -agrar.hu -bolt.hu -casino.hu -city.hu -erotica.hu -erotika.hu -film.hu -forum.hu -games.hu -hotel.hu -ingatlan.hu -jogasz.hu -konyvelo.hu -lakas.hu -media.hu -news.hu -reklam.hu -sex.hu -shop.hu -suli.hu -szex.hu -tozsde.hu -utazas.hu -video.hu - -// id : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.id -// see also: https://register.pandi.or.id/ -id -ac.id -co.id -go.id -mil.id -net.id -or.id -sch.id -web.id - -// ie : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ie -ie -gov.ie - -// il : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.il -*.il - -// im : https://www.nic.im/pdfs/imfaqs.pdf -im -co.im -ltd.co.im -plc.co.im -net.im -gov.im -org.im -nic.im -ac.im - -// in : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.in -// see also: http://www.inregistry.in/policies/ -// Please note, that nic.in is not an offical eTLD, but used by most -// government institutions. -in -co.in -firm.in -net.in -org.in -gen.in -ind.in -nic.in -ac.in -edu.in -res.in -gov.in -mil.in - -// info : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.info -info - -// int : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.int -// Confirmed by registry 2008-06-18 -int -eu.int - -// io : http://www.nic.io/rules.html -// list of other 2nd level tlds ? -io -com.io - -// iq : http://www.cmc.iq/english/iq/iqregister1.htm -iq -gov.iq -edu.iq -mil.iq -com.iq -org.iq -net.iq - -// ir : http://www.nic.ir/Terms_and_Conditions_ir,_Appendix_1_Domain_Rules -// Also see http://www.nic.ir/Internationalized_Domain_Names -// Two .ir entries added at request of , 2010-04-16 -ir -ac.ir -co.ir -gov.ir -id.ir -net.ir -org.ir -sch.ir -// xn--mgba3a4f16a.ir (.ir, Persian YEH) -ایران.ir -// xn--mgba3a4fra.ir (.ir, Arabic YEH) -ايران.ir - -// is : http://www.isnic.is/domain/rules.php -// Confirmed by registry 2008-12-06 -is -net.is -com.is -edu.is -gov.is -org.is -int.is - -// it : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.it -it -gov.it -edu.it -// list of reserved geo-names : -// http://www.nic.it/documenti/regolamenti-e-linee-guida/regolamento-assegnazione-versione-6.0.pdf -// (There is also a list of reserved geo-names corresponding to Italian -// municipalities : http://www.nic.it/documenti/appendice-c.pdf , but it is -// not included here.) -agrigento.it -ag.it -alessandria.it -al.it -ancona.it -an.it -aosta.it -aoste.it -ao.it -arezzo.it -ar.it -ascoli-piceno.it -ascolipiceno.it -ap.it -asti.it -at.it -avellino.it -av.it -bari.it -ba.it -andria-barletta-trani.it -andriabarlettatrani.it -trani-barletta-andria.it -tranibarlettaandria.it -barletta-trani-andria.it -barlettatraniandria.it -andria-trani-barletta.it -andriatranibarletta.it -trani-andria-barletta.it -traniandriabarletta.it -bt.it -belluno.it -bl.it -benevento.it -bn.it -bergamo.it -bg.it -biella.it -bi.it -bologna.it -bo.it -bolzano.it -bozen.it -balsan.it -alto-adige.it -altoadige.it -suedtirol.it -bz.it -brescia.it -bs.it -brindisi.it -br.it -cagliari.it -ca.it -caltanissetta.it -cl.it -campobasso.it -cb.it -carboniaiglesias.it -carbonia-iglesias.it -iglesias-carbonia.it -iglesiascarbonia.it -ci.it -caserta.it -ce.it -catania.it -ct.it -catanzaro.it -cz.it -chieti.it -ch.it -como.it -co.it -cosenza.it -cs.it -cremona.it -cr.it -crotone.it -kr.it -cuneo.it -cn.it -dell-ogliastra.it -dellogliastra.it -ogliastra.it -og.it -enna.it -en.it -ferrara.it -fe.it -fermo.it -fm.it -firenze.it -florence.it -fi.it -foggia.it -fg.it -forli-cesena.it -forlicesena.it -cesena-forli.it -cesenaforli.it -fc.it -frosinone.it -fr.it -genova.it -genoa.it -ge.it -gorizia.it -go.it -grosseto.it -gr.it -imperia.it -im.it -isernia.it -is.it -laquila.it -aquila.it -aq.it -la-spezia.it -laspezia.it -sp.it -latina.it -lt.it -lecce.it -le.it -lecco.it -lc.it -livorno.it -li.it -lodi.it -lo.it -lucca.it -lu.it -macerata.it -mc.it -mantova.it -mn.it -massa-carrara.it -massacarrara.it -carrara-massa.it -carraramassa.it -ms.it -matera.it -mt.it -medio-campidano.it -mediocampidano.it -campidano-medio.it -campidanomedio.it -vs.it -messina.it -me.it -milano.it -milan.it -mi.it -modena.it -mo.it -monza.it -monza-brianza.it -monzabrianza.it -monzaebrianza.it -monzaedellabrianza.it -monza-e-della-brianza.it -mb.it -napoli.it -naples.it -na.it -novara.it -no.it -nuoro.it -nu.it -oristano.it -or.it -padova.it -padua.it -pd.it -palermo.it -pa.it -parma.it -pr.it -pavia.it -pv.it -perugia.it -pg.it -pescara.it -pe.it -pesaro-urbino.it -pesarourbino.it -urbino-pesaro.it -urbinopesaro.it -pu.it -piacenza.it -pc.it -pisa.it -pi.it -pistoia.it -pt.it -pordenone.it -pn.it -potenza.it -pz.it -prato.it -po.it -ragusa.it -rg.it -ravenna.it -ra.it -reggio-calabria.it -reggiocalabria.it -rc.it -reggio-emilia.it -reggioemilia.it -re.it -rieti.it -ri.it -rimini.it -rn.it -roma.it -rome.it -rm.it -rovigo.it -ro.it -salerno.it -sa.it -sassari.it -ss.it -savona.it -sv.it -siena.it -si.it -siracusa.it -sr.it -sondrio.it -so.it -taranto.it -ta.it -tempio-olbia.it -tempioolbia.it -olbia-tempio.it -olbiatempio.it -ot.it -teramo.it -te.it -terni.it -tr.it -torino.it -turin.it -to.it -trapani.it -tp.it -trento.it -trentino.it -tn.it -treviso.it -tv.it -trieste.it -ts.it -udine.it -ud.it -varese.it -va.it -venezia.it -venice.it -ve.it -verbania.it -vb.it -vercelli.it -vc.it -verona.it -vr.it -vibo-valentia.it -vibovalentia.it -vv.it -vicenza.it -vi.it -viterbo.it -vt.it - -// je : http://www.channelisles.net/applic/avextn.shtml -je -co.je -org.je -net.je -sch.je -gov.je - -// jm : http://www.com.jm/register.html -*.jm - -// jo : http://www.dns.jo/Registration_policy.aspx -jo -com.jo -org.jo -net.jo -edu.jo -sch.jo -gov.jo -mil.jo -name.jo - -// jobs : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.jobs -jobs - -// jp : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.jp -// http://jprs.co.jp/en/jpdomain.html -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-11 -// Updated by registry 2008-12-04 -jp -// jp organizational type names -ac.jp -ad.jp -co.jp -ed.jp -go.jp -gr.jp -lg.jp -ne.jp -or.jp -// jp geographic type names -// http://jprs.jp/doc/rule/saisoku-1.html -*.aichi.jp -*.akita.jp -*.aomori.jp -*.chiba.jp -*.ehime.jp -*.fukui.jp -*.fukuoka.jp -*.fukushima.jp -*.gifu.jp -*.gunma.jp -*.hiroshima.jp -*.hokkaido.jp -*.hyogo.jp -*.ibaraki.jp -*.ishikawa.jp -*.iwate.jp -*.kagawa.jp -*.kagoshima.jp -*.kanagawa.jp -*.kawasaki.jp -*.kitakyushu.jp -*.kobe.jp -*.kochi.jp -*.kumamoto.jp -*.kyoto.jp -*.mie.jp -*.miyagi.jp -*.miyazaki.jp -*.nagano.jp -*.nagasaki.jp -*.nagoya.jp -*.nara.jp -*.niigata.jp -*.oita.jp -*.okayama.jp -*.okinawa.jp -*.osaka.jp -*.saga.jp -*.saitama.jp -*.sapporo.jp -*.sendai.jp -*.shiga.jp -*.shimane.jp -*.shizuoka.jp -*.tochigi.jp -*.tokushima.jp -*.tokyo.jp -*.tottori.jp -*.toyama.jp -*.wakayama.jp -*.yamagata.jp -*.yamaguchi.jp -*.yamanashi.jp -*.yokohama.jp -!metro.tokyo.jp -!pref.aichi.jp -!pref.akita.jp -!pref.aomori.jp -!pref.chiba.jp -!pref.ehime.jp -!pref.fukui.jp -!pref.fukuoka.jp -!pref.fukushima.jp -!pref.gifu.jp -!pref.gunma.jp -!pref.hiroshima.jp -!pref.hokkaido.jp -!pref.hyogo.jp -!pref.ibaraki.jp -!pref.ishikawa.jp -!pref.iwate.jp -!pref.kagawa.jp -!pref.kagoshima.jp -!pref.kanagawa.jp -!pref.kochi.jp -!pref.kumamoto.jp -!pref.kyoto.jp -!pref.mie.jp -!pref.miyagi.jp -!pref.miyazaki.jp -!pref.nagano.jp -!pref.nagasaki.jp -!pref.nara.jp -!pref.niigata.jp -!pref.oita.jp -!pref.okayama.jp -!pref.okinawa.jp -!pref.osaka.jp -!pref.saga.jp -!pref.saitama.jp -!pref.shiga.jp -!pref.shimane.jp -!pref.shizuoka.jp -!pref.tochigi.jp -!pref.tokushima.jp -!pref.tottori.jp -!pref.toyama.jp -!pref.wakayama.jp -!pref.yamagata.jp -!pref.yamaguchi.jp -!pref.yamanashi.jp -!city.chiba.jp -!city.fukuoka.jp -!city.hiroshima.jp -!city.kawasaki.jp -!city.kitakyushu.jp -!city.kobe.jp -!city.kyoto.jp -!city.nagoya.jp -!city.niigata.jp -!city.okayama.jp -!city.osaka.jp -!city.saitama.jp -!city.sapporo.jp -!city.sendai.jp -!city.shizuoka.jp -!city.yokohama.jp - -// ke : http://www.kenic.or.ke/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=117&Itemid=145 -*.ke - -// kg : http://www.domain.kg/dmn_n.html -kg -org.kg -net.kg -com.kg -edu.kg -gov.kg -mil.kg - -// kh : http://www.mptc.gov.kh/dns_registration.htm -*.kh - -// ki : http://www.ki/dns/index.html -ki -edu.ki -biz.ki -net.ki -org.ki -gov.ki -info.ki -com.ki - -// km : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.km -// http://www.domaine.km/documents/charte.doc -km -org.km -nom.km -gov.km -prd.km -tm.km -edu.km -mil.km -ass.km -com.km -// These are only mentioned as proposed suggestions at domaine.km, but -// http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.km says they're available for registration: -coop.km -asso.km -presse.km -medecin.km -notaires.km -pharmaciens.km -veterinaire.km -gouv.km - -// kn : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.kn -// http://www.dot.kn/domainRules.html -kn -net.kn -org.kn -edu.kn -gov.kn - -// kp : http://www.kcce.kp/en_index.php -com.kp -edu.kp -gov.kp -org.kp -rep.kp -tra.kp - -// kr : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.kr -// see also: http://domain.nida.or.kr/eng/registration.jsp -kr -ac.kr -co.kr -es.kr -go.kr -hs.kr -kg.kr -mil.kr -ms.kr -ne.kr -or.kr -pe.kr -re.kr -sc.kr -// kr geographical names -busan.kr -chungbuk.kr -chungnam.kr -daegu.kr -daejeon.kr -gangwon.kr -gwangju.kr -gyeongbuk.kr -gyeonggi.kr -gyeongnam.kr -incheon.kr -jeju.kr -jeonbuk.kr -jeonnam.kr -seoul.kr -ulsan.kr - -// kw : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.kw -*.kw - -// ky : http://www.icta.ky/da_ky_reg_dom.php -// Confirmed by registry 2008-06-17 -ky -edu.ky -gov.ky -com.ky -org.ky -net.ky - -// kz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.kz -// see also: http://www.nic.kz/rules/index.jsp -kz -org.kz -edu.kz -net.kz -gov.kz -mil.kz -com.kz - -// la : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.la -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-10 -la -int.la -net.la -info.la -edu.la -gov.la -per.la -com.la -org.la -// see http://www.c.la/ -c.la - -// lb : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.lb -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-17 -com.lb -edu.lb -gov.lb -net.lb -org.lb - -// lc : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.lc -// see also: http://www.nic.lc/rules.htm -lc -com.lc -net.lc -co.lc -org.lc -edu.lc -gov.lc - -// li : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.li -li - -// lk : http://www.nic.lk/seclevpr.html -lk -gov.lk -sch.lk -net.lk -int.lk -com.lk -org.lk -edu.lk -ngo.lk -soc.lk -web.lk -ltd.lk -assn.lk -grp.lk -hotel.lk - -// local : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.local -local - -// lr : http://psg.com/dns/lr/lr.txt -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-17 -com.lr -edu.lr -gov.lr -org.lr -net.lr - -// ls : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ls -ls -co.ls -org.ls - -// lt : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.lt -lt -// gov.lt : http://www.gov.lt/index_en.php -gov.lt - -// lu : http://www.dns.lu/en/ -lu - -// lv : http://www.nic.lv/DNS/En/generic.php -lv -com.lv -edu.lv -gov.lv -org.lv -mil.lv -id.lv -net.lv -asn.lv -conf.lv - -// ly : http://www.nic.ly/regulations.php -ly -com.ly -net.ly -gov.ly -plc.ly -edu.ly -sch.ly -med.ly -org.ly -id.ly - -// ma : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ma -// http://www.anrt.ma/fr/admin/download/upload/file_fr782.pdf -ma -co.ma -net.ma -gov.ma -org.ma -ac.ma -press.ma - -// mc : http://www.nic.mc/ -mc -tm.mc -asso.mc - -// md : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.md -md - -// me : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.me -me -co.me -net.me -org.me -edu.me -ac.me -gov.me -its.me -priv.me - -// mg : http://www.nic.mg/tarif.htm -mg -org.mg -nom.mg -gov.mg -prd.mg -tm.mg -edu.mg -mil.mg -com.mg - -// mh : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mh -mh - -// mil : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mil -mil - -// mk : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mk -// see also: http://dns.marnet.net.mk/postapka.php -mk -com.mk -org.mk -net.mk -edu.mk -gov.mk -inf.mk -name.mk - -// ml : http://www.gobin.info/domainname/ml-template.doc -// see also: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ml -ml -com.ml -edu.ml -gouv.ml -gov.ml -net.ml -org.ml -presse.ml - -// mm : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mm -*.mm - -// mn : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mn -mn -gov.mn -edu.mn -org.mn - -// mo : http://www.monic.net.mo/ -mo -com.mo -net.mo -org.mo -edu.mo -gov.mo - -// mobi : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mobi -mobi - -// mp : http://www.dot.mp/ -// Confirmed by registry 2008-06-17 -mp - -// mq : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mq -mq - -// mr : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mr -mr -gov.mr - -// ms : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ms -ms - -// mt : https://www.nic.org.mt/dotmt/ -*.mt - -// mu : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mu -mu -com.mu -net.mu -org.mu -gov.mu -ac.mu -co.mu -or.mu - -// museum : http://about.museum/naming/ -// http://index.museum/ -museum -academy.museum -agriculture.museum -air.museum -airguard.museum -alabama.museum -alaska.museum -amber.museum -ambulance.museum -american.museum -americana.museum -americanantiques.museum -americanart.museum -amsterdam.museum -and.museum -annefrank.museum -anthro.museum -anthropology.museum -antiques.museum -aquarium.museum -arboretum.museum -archaeological.museum -archaeology.museum -architecture.museum -art.museum -artanddesign.museum -artcenter.museum -artdeco.museum -arteducation.museum -artgallery.museum -arts.museum -artsandcrafts.museum -asmatart.museum -assassination.museum -assisi.museum -association.museum -astronomy.museum -atlanta.museum -austin.museum -australia.museum -automotive.museum -aviation.museum -axis.museum -badajoz.museum -baghdad.museum -bahn.museum -bale.museum -baltimore.museum -barcelona.museum -baseball.museum -basel.museum -baths.museum -bauern.museum -beauxarts.museum -beeldengeluid.museum -bellevue.museum -bergbau.museum -berkeley.museum -berlin.museum -bern.museum -bible.museum -bilbao.museum -bill.museum -birdart.museum -birthplace.museum -bonn.museum -boston.museum -botanical.museum -botanicalgarden.museum -botanicgarden.museum -botany.museum -brandywinevalley.museum -brasil.museum -bristol.museum -british.museum -britishcolumbia.museum -broadcast.museum -brunel.museum -brussel.museum -brussels.museum -bruxelles.museum -building.museum -burghof.museum -bus.museum -bushey.museum -cadaques.museum -california.museum -cambridge.museum -can.museum -canada.museum -capebreton.museum -carrier.museum -cartoonart.museum -casadelamoneda.museum -castle.museum -castres.museum -celtic.museum -center.museum -chattanooga.museum -cheltenham.museum -chesapeakebay.museum -chicago.museum -children.museum -childrens.museum -childrensgarden.museum -chiropractic.museum -chocolate.museum -christiansburg.museum -cincinnati.museum -cinema.museum -circus.museum -civilisation.museum -civilization.museum -civilwar.museum -clinton.museum -clock.museum -coal.museum -coastaldefence.museum -cody.museum -coldwar.museum -collection.museum -colonialwilliamsburg.museum -coloradoplateau.museum -columbia.museum -columbus.museum -communication.museum -communications.museum -community.museum -computer.museum -computerhistory.museum -comunicações.museum -contemporary.museum -contemporaryart.museum -convent.museum -copenhagen.museum -corporation.museum -correios-e-telecomunicações.museum -corvette.museum -costume.museum -countryestate.museum -county.museum -crafts.museum -cranbrook.museum -creation.museum -cultural.museum -culturalcenter.museum -culture.museum -cyber.museum -cymru.museum -dali.museum -dallas.museum -database.museum -ddr.museum -decorativearts.museum -delaware.museum -delmenhorst.museum -denmark.museum -depot.museum -design.museum -detroit.museum -dinosaur.museum -discovery.museum -dolls.museum -donostia.museum -durham.museum -eastafrica.museum -eastcoast.museum -education.museum -educational.museum -egyptian.museum -eisenbahn.museum -elburg.museum -elvendrell.museum -embroidery.museum -encyclopedic.museum -england.museum -entomology.museum -environment.museum -environmentalconservation.museum -epilepsy.museum -essex.museum -estate.museum -ethnology.museum -exeter.museum -exhibition.museum -family.museum -farm.museum -farmequipment.museum -farmers.museum -farmstead.museum -field.museum -figueres.museum -filatelia.museum -film.museum -fineart.museum -finearts.museum -finland.museum -flanders.museum -florida.museum -force.museum -fortmissoula.museum -fortworth.museum -foundation.museum -francaise.museum -frankfurt.museum -franziskaner.museum -freemasonry.museum -freiburg.museum -fribourg.museum -frog.museum -fundacio.museum -furniture.museum -gallery.museum -garden.museum -gateway.museum -geelvinck.museum -gemological.museum -geology.museum -georgia.museum -giessen.museum -glas.museum -glass.museum -gorge.museum -grandrapids.museum -graz.museum -guernsey.museum -halloffame.museum -hamburg.museum -handson.museum -harvestcelebration.museum -hawaii.museum -health.museum -heimatunduhren.museum -hellas.museum -helsinki.museum -hembygdsforbund.museum -heritage.museum -histoire.museum -historical.museum -historicalsociety.museum -historichouses.museum -historisch.museum -historisches.museum -history.museum -historyofscience.museum -horology.museum -house.museum -humanities.museum -illustration.museum -imageandsound.museum -indian.museum -indiana.museum -indianapolis.museum -indianmarket.museum -intelligence.museum -interactive.museum -iraq.museum -iron.museum -isleofman.museum -jamison.museum -jefferson.museum -jerusalem.museum -jewelry.museum -jewish.museum -jewishart.museum -jfk.museum -journalism.museum -judaica.museum -judygarland.museum -juedisches.museum -juif.museum -karate.museum -karikatur.museum -kids.museum -koebenhavn.museum -koeln.museum -kunst.museum -kunstsammlung.museum -kunstunddesign.museum -labor.museum -labour.museum -lajolla.museum -lancashire.museum -landes.museum -lans.museum -läns.museum -larsson.museum -lewismiller.museum -lincoln.museum -linz.museum -living.museum -livinghistory.museum -localhistory.museum -london.museum -losangeles.museum -louvre.museum -loyalist.museum -lucerne.museum -luxembourg.museum -luzern.museum -mad.museum -madrid.museum -mallorca.museum -manchester.museum -mansion.museum -mansions.museum -manx.museum -marburg.museum -maritime.museum -maritimo.museum -maryland.museum -marylhurst.museum -media.museum -medical.museum -medizinhistorisches.museum -meeres.museum -memorial.museum -mesaverde.museum -michigan.museum -midatlantic.museum -military.museum -mill.museum -miners.museum -mining.museum -minnesota.museum -missile.museum -missoula.museum -modern.museum -moma.museum -money.museum -monmouth.museum -monticello.museum -montreal.museum -moscow.museum -motorcycle.museum -muenchen.museum -muenster.museum -mulhouse.museum -muncie.museum -museet.museum -museumcenter.museum -museumvereniging.museum -music.museum -national.museum -nationalfirearms.museum -nationalheritage.museum -nativeamerican.museum -naturalhistory.museum -naturalhistorymuseum.museum -naturalsciences.museum -nature.museum -naturhistorisches.museum -natuurwetenschappen.museum -naumburg.museum -naval.museum -nebraska.museum -neues.museum -newhampshire.museum -newjersey.museum -newmexico.museum -newport.museum -newspaper.museum -newyork.museum -niepce.museum -norfolk.museum -north.museum -nrw.museum -nuernberg.museum -nuremberg.museum -nyc.museum -nyny.museum -oceanographic.museum -oceanographique.museum -omaha.museum -online.museum -ontario.museum -openair.museum -oregon.museum -oregontrail.museum -otago.museum -oxford.museum -pacific.museum -paderborn.museum -palace.museum -paleo.museum -palmsprings.museum -panama.museum -paris.museum -pasadena.museum -pharmacy.museum -philadelphia.museum -philadelphiaarea.museum -philately.museum -phoenix.museum -photography.museum -pilots.museum -pittsburgh.museum -planetarium.museum -plantation.museum -plants.museum -plaza.museum -portal.museum -portland.museum -portlligat.museum -posts-and-telecommunications.museum -preservation.museum -presidio.museum -press.museum -project.museum -public.museum -pubol.museum -quebec.museum -railroad.museum -railway.museum -research.museum -resistance.museum -riodejaneiro.museum -rochester.museum -rockart.museum -roma.museum -russia.museum -saintlouis.museum -salem.museum -salvadordali.museum -salzburg.museum -sandiego.museum -sanfrancisco.museum -santabarbara.museum -santacruz.museum -santafe.museum -saskatchewan.museum -satx.museum -savannahga.museum -schlesisches.museum -schoenbrunn.museum -schokoladen.museum -school.museum -schweiz.museum -science.museum -scienceandhistory.museum -scienceandindustry.museum -sciencecenter.museum -sciencecenters.museum -science-fiction.museum -sciencehistory.museum -sciences.museum -sciencesnaturelles.museum -scotland.museum -seaport.museum -settlement.museum -settlers.museum -shell.museum -sherbrooke.museum -sibenik.museum -silk.museum -ski.museum -skole.museum -society.museum -sologne.museum -soundandvision.museum -southcarolina.museum -southwest.museum -space.museum -spy.museum -square.museum -stadt.museum -stalbans.museum -starnberg.museum -state.museum -stateofdelaware.museum -station.museum -steam.museum -steiermark.museum -stjohn.museum -stockholm.museum -stpetersburg.museum -stuttgart.museum -suisse.museum -surgeonshall.museum -surrey.museum -svizzera.museum -sweden.museum -sydney.museum -tank.museum -tcm.museum -technology.museum -telekommunikation.museum -television.museum -texas.museum -textile.museum -theater.museum -time.museum -timekeeping.museum -topology.museum -torino.museum -touch.museum -town.museum -transport.museum -tree.museum -trolley.museum -trust.museum -trustee.museum -uhren.museum -ulm.museum -undersea.museum -university.museum -usa.museum -usantiques.museum -usarts.museum -uscountryestate.museum -usculture.museum -usdecorativearts.museum -usgarden.museum -ushistory.museum -ushuaia.museum -uslivinghistory.museum -utah.museum -uvic.museum -valley.museum -vantaa.museum -versailles.museum -viking.museum -village.museum -virginia.museum -virtual.museum -virtuel.museum -vlaanderen.museum -volkenkunde.museum -wales.museum -wallonie.museum -war.museum -washingtondc.museum -watchandclock.museum -watch-and-clock.museum -western.museum -westfalen.museum -whaling.museum -wildlife.museum -williamsburg.museum -windmill.museum -workshop.museum -york.museum -yorkshire.museum -yosemite.museum -youth.museum -zoological.museum -zoology.museum -ירושלים.museum -иком.museum - -// mv : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mv -// "mv" included because, contra Wikipedia, google.mv exists. -mv -aero.mv -biz.mv -com.mv -coop.mv -edu.mv -gov.mv -info.mv -int.mv -mil.mv -museum.mv -name.mv -net.mv -org.mv -pro.mv - -// mw : http://www.registrar.mw/ -mw -ac.mw -biz.mw -co.mw -com.mw -coop.mw -edu.mw -gov.mw -int.mw -museum.mw -net.mw -org.mw - -// mx : http://www.nic.mx/ -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-19 -mx -com.mx -org.mx -gob.mx -edu.mx -net.mx - -// my : http://www.mynic.net.my/ -my -com.my -net.my -org.my -gov.my -edu.my -mil.my -name.my - -// mz : http://www.gobin.info/domainname/mz-template.doc -*.mz - -// na : http://www.na-nic.com.na/ -// http://www.info.na/domain/ -na -info.na -pro.na -name.na -school.na -or.na -dr.na -us.na -mx.na -ca.na -in.na -cc.na -tv.na -ws.na -mobi.na -co.na -com.na -org.na - -// name : has 2nd-level tlds, but there's no list of them -name - -// nc : http://www.cctld.nc/ -nc -asso.nc - -// ne : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ne -ne - -// net : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.net -net - -// CentralNic names : http://www.centralnic.com/names/domains -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-17 -gb.net -se.net -uk.net - -// ZaNiC names : http://www.za.net/ -// Confirmed by registry 2009-10-03 -za.net - -// nf : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.nf -nf -com.nf -net.nf -per.nf -rec.nf -web.nf -arts.nf -firm.nf -info.nf -other.nf -store.nf - -// ng : http://psg.com/dns/ng/ -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-17 -ac.ng -com.ng -edu.ng -gov.ng -net.ng -org.ng - -// ni : http://www.nic.ni/dominios.htm -*.ni - -// nl : http://www.domain-registry.nl/ace.php/c,728,122,,,,Home.html -// Confirmed by registry (with technical -// reservations) 2008-06-08 -nl - -// BV.nl will be a registry for dutch BV's (besloten vennootschap) -bv.nl - -// the co.nl domain is managed by CoDNS B.V. Added 2010-05-23. -co.nl - -// no : http://www.norid.no/regelverk/index.en.html -// The Norwegian registry has declined to notify us of updates. The web pages -// referenced below are the official source of the data. There is also an -// announce mailing list: -// https://postlister.uninett.no/sympa/info/norid-diskusjon -no -// Norid generic domains : http://www.norid.no/regelverk/vedlegg-c.en.html -fhs.no -vgs.no -fylkesbibl.no -folkebibl.no -museum.no -idrett.no -priv.no -// Non-Norid generic domains : http://www.norid.no/regelverk/vedlegg-d.en.html -mil.no -stat.no -dep.no -kommune.no -herad.no -// no geographical names : http://www.norid.no/regelverk/vedlegg-b.en.html -// counties -aa.no -ah.no -bu.no -fm.no -hl.no -hm.no -jan-mayen.no -mr.no -nl.no -nt.no -of.no -ol.no -oslo.no -rl.no -sf.no -st.no -svalbard.no -tm.no -tr.no -va.no -vf.no -// primary and lower secondary schools per county -gs.aa.no -gs.ah.no -gs.bu.no -gs.fm.no -gs.hl.no -gs.hm.no -gs.jan-mayen.no -gs.mr.no -gs.nl.no -gs.nt.no -gs.of.no -gs.ol.no -gs.oslo.no -gs.rl.no -gs.sf.no -gs.st.no -gs.svalbard.no -gs.tm.no -gs.tr.no -gs.va.no -gs.vf.no -// cities -akrehamn.no -åkrehamn.no -algard.no -ålgård.no -arna.no -brumunddal.no -bryne.no -bronnoysund.no -brønnøysund.no -drobak.no -drøbak.no -egersund.no -fetsund.no -floro.no -florø.no -fredrikstad.no -hokksund.no -honefoss.no -hønefoss.no -jessheim.no -jorpeland.no -jørpeland.no -kirkenes.no -kopervik.no -krokstadelva.no -langevag.no -langevåg.no -leirvik.no -mjondalen.no -mjøndalen.no -mo-i-rana.no -mosjoen.no -mosjøen.no -nesoddtangen.no -orkanger.no -osoyro.no -osøyro.no -raholt.no -råholt.no -sandnessjoen.no -sandnessjøen.no -skedsmokorset.no -slattum.no -spjelkavik.no -stathelle.no -stavern.no -stjordalshalsen.no -stjørdalshalsen.no -tananger.no -tranby.no -vossevangen.no -// communities -afjord.no -åfjord.no -agdenes.no -al.no -ål.no -alesund.no -ålesund.no -alstahaug.no -alta.no -áltá.no -alaheadju.no -álaheadju.no -alvdal.no -amli.no -åmli.no -amot.no -åmot.no -andebu.no -andoy.no -andøy.no -andasuolo.no -ardal.no -årdal.no -aremark.no -arendal.no -ås.no -aseral.no -åseral.no -asker.no -askim.no -askvoll.no -askoy.no -askøy.no -asnes.no -åsnes.no -audnedaln.no -aukra.no -aure.no -aurland.no -aurskog-holand.no -aurskog-høland.no -austevoll.no -austrheim.no -averoy.no -averøy.no -balestrand.no -ballangen.no -balat.no -bálát.no -balsfjord.no -bahccavuotna.no -báhccavuotna.no -bamble.no -bardu.no -beardu.no -beiarn.no -bajddar.no -bájddar.no -baidar.no -báidár.no -berg.no -bergen.no -berlevag.no -berlevåg.no -bearalvahki.no -bearalváhki.no -bindal.no -birkenes.no -bjarkoy.no -bjarkøy.no -bjerkreim.no -bjugn.no -bodo.no -bodø.no -badaddja.no -bådåddjå.no -budejju.no -bokn.no -bremanger.no -bronnoy.no -brønnøy.no -bygland.no -bykle.no -barum.no -bærum.no -bo.telemark.no -bø.telemark.no -bo.nordland.no -bø.nordland.no -bievat.no -bievát.no -bomlo.no -bømlo.no -batsfjord.no -båtsfjord.no -bahcavuotna.no -báhcavuotna.no -dovre.no -drammen.no -drangedal.no -dyroy.no -dyrøy.no -donna.no -dønna.no -eid.no -eidfjord.no -eidsberg.no -eidskog.no -eidsvoll.no -eigersund.no -elverum.no -enebakk.no -engerdal.no -etne.no -etnedal.no -evenes.no -evenassi.no -evenášši.no -evje-og-hornnes.no -farsund.no -fauske.no -fuossko.no -fuoisku.no -fedje.no -fet.no -finnoy.no -finnøy.no -fitjar.no -fjaler.no -fjell.no -flakstad.no -flatanger.no -flekkefjord.no -flesberg.no -flora.no -fla.no -flå.no -folldal.no -forsand.no -fosnes.no -frei.no -frogn.no -froland.no -frosta.no -frana.no -fræna.no -froya.no -frøya.no -fusa.no -fyresdal.no -forde.no -førde.no -gamvik.no -gangaviika.no -gáŋgaviika.no -gaular.no -gausdal.no -gildeskal.no -gildeskål.no -giske.no -gjemnes.no -gjerdrum.no -gjerstad.no -gjesdal.no -gjovik.no -gjøvik.no -gloppen.no -gol.no -gran.no -grane.no -granvin.no -gratangen.no -grimstad.no -grong.no -kraanghke.no -kråanghke.no -grue.no -gulen.no -hadsel.no -halden.no -halsa.no -hamar.no -hamaroy.no -habmer.no -hábmer.no -hapmir.no -hápmir.no -hammerfest.no -hammarfeasta.no -hámmárfeasta.no -haram.no -hareid.no -harstad.no -hasvik.no -aknoluokta.no -ákŋoluokta.no -hattfjelldal.no -aarborte.no -haugesund.no -hemne.no -hemnes.no -hemsedal.no -heroy.more-og-romsdal.no -herøy.møre-og-romsdal.no -heroy.nordland.no -herøy.nordland.no -hitra.no -hjartdal.no -hjelmeland.no -hobol.no -hobøl.no -hof.no -hol.no -hole.no -holmestrand.no -holtalen.no -holtålen.no -hornindal.no -horten.no -hurdal.no -hurum.no -hvaler.no -hyllestad.no -hagebostad.no -hægebostad.no -hoyanger.no -høyanger.no -hoylandet.no -høylandet.no -ha.no -hå.no -ibestad.no -inderoy.no -inderøy.no -iveland.no -jevnaker.no -jondal.no -jolster.no -jølster.no -karasjok.no -karasjohka.no -kárášjohka.no -karlsoy.no -galsa.no -gálsá.no -karmoy.no -karmøy.no -kautokeino.no -guovdageaidnu.no -klepp.no -klabu.no -klæbu.no -kongsberg.no -kongsvinger.no -kragero.no -kragerø.no -kristiansand.no -kristiansund.no -krodsherad.no -krødsherad.no -kvalsund.no -rahkkeravju.no -ráhkkerávju.no -kvam.no -kvinesdal.no -kvinnherad.no -kviteseid.no -kvitsoy.no -kvitsøy.no -kvafjord.no -kvæfjord.no -giehtavuoatna.no -kvanangen.no -kvænangen.no -navuotna.no -návuotna.no -kafjord.no -kåfjord.no -gaivuotna.no -gáivuotna.no -larvik.no -lavangen.no -lavagis.no -loabat.no -loabát.no -lebesby.no -davvesiida.no -leikanger.no -leirfjord.no -leka.no -leksvik.no -lenvik.no -leangaviika.no -leaŋgaviika.no -lesja.no -levanger.no -lier.no -lierne.no -lillehammer.no -lillesand.no -lindesnes.no -lindas.no -lindås.no -lom.no -loppa.no -lahppi.no -láhppi.no -lund.no -lunner.no -luroy.no -lurøy.no -luster.no -lyngdal.no -lyngen.no -ivgu.no -lardal.no -lerdal.no -lærdal.no -lodingen.no -lødingen.no -lorenskog.no -lørenskog.no -loten.no -løten.no -malvik.no -masoy.no -måsøy.no -muosat.no -muosát.no -mandal.no -marker.no -marnardal.no -masfjorden.no -meland.no -meldal.no -melhus.no -meloy.no -meløy.no -meraker.no -meråker.no -moareke.no -moåreke.no -midsund.no -midtre-gauldal.no -modalen.no -modum.no -molde.no -moskenes.no -moss.no -mosvik.no -malselv.no -målselv.no -malatvuopmi.no -málatvuopmi.no -namdalseid.no -aejrie.no -namsos.no -namsskogan.no -naamesjevuemie.no -nååmesjevuemie.no -laakesvuemie.no -nannestad.no -narvik.no -narviika.no -naustdal.no -nedre-eiker.no -nes.akershus.no -nes.buskerud.no -nesna.no -nesodden.no -nesseby.no -unjarga.no -unjárga.no -nesset.no -nissedal.no -nittedal.no -nord-aurdal.no -nord-fron.no -nord-odal.no -norddal.no -nordkapp.no -davvenjarga.no -davvenjárga.no -nordre-land.no -nordreisa.no -raisa.no -ráisa.no -nore-og-uvdal.no -notodden.no -naroy.no -nærøy.no -notteroy.no -nøtterøy.no -odda.no -oksnes.no -øksnes.no -oppdal.no -oppegard.no -oppegård.no -orkdal.no -orland.no -ørland.no -orskog.no -ørskog.no -orsta.no -ørsta.no -os.hedmark.no -os.hordaland.no -osen.no -osteroy.no -osterøy.no -ostre-toten.no -østre-toten.no -overhalla.no -ovre-eiker.no -øvre-eiker.no -oyer.no -øyer.no -oygarden.no -øygarden.no -oystre-slidre.no -øystre-slidre.no -porsanger.no -porsangu.no -porsáŋgu.no -porsgrunn.no -radoy.no -radøy.no -rakkestad.no -rana.no -ruovat.no -randaberg.no -rauma.no -rendalen.no -rennebu.no -rennesoy.no -rennesøy.no -rindal.no -ringebu.no -ringerike.no -ringsaker.no -rissa.no -risor.no -risør.no -roan.no -rollag.no -rygge.no -ralingen.no -rælingen.no -rodoy.no -rødøy.no -romskog.no -rømskog.no -roros.no -røros.no -rost.no -røst.no -royken.no -røyken.no -royrvik.no -røyrvik.no -rade.no -råde.no -salangen.no -siellak.no -saltdal.no -salat.no -sálát.no -sálat.no -samnanger.no -sande.more-og-romsdal.no -sande.møre-og-romsdal.no -sande.vestfold.no -sandefjord.no -sandnes.no -sandoy.no -sandøy.no -sarpsborg.no -sauda.no -sauherad.no -sel.no -selbu.no -selje.no -seljord.no -sigdal.no -siljan.no -sirdal.no -skaun.no -skedsmo.no -ski.no -skien.no -skiptvet.no -skjervoy.no -skjervøy.no -skierva.no -skiervá.no -skjak.no -skjåk.no -skodje.no -skanland.no -skånland.no -skanit.no -skánit.no -smola.no -smøla.no -snillfjord.no -snasa.no -snåsa.no -snoasa.no -snaase.no -snåase.no -sogndal.no -sokndal.no -sola.no -solund.no -songdalen.no -sortland.no -spydeberg.no -stange.no -stavanger.no -steigen.no -steinkjer.no -stjordal.no -stjørdal.no -stokke.no -stor-elvdal.no -stord.no -stordal.no -storfjord.no -omasvuotna.no -strand.no -stranda.no -stryn.no -sula.no -suldal.no -sund.no -sunndal.no -surnadal.no -sveio.no -svelvik.no -sykkylven.no -sogne.no -søgne.no -somna.no -sømna.no -sondre-land.no -søndre-land.no -sor-aurdal.no -sør-aurdal.no -sor-fron.no -sør-fron.no -sor-odal.no -sør-odal.no -sor-varanger.no -sør-varanger.no -matta-varjjat.no -mátta-várjjat.no -sorfold.no -sørfold.no -sorreisa.no -sørreisa.no -sorum.no -sørum.no -tana.no -deatnu.no -time.no -tingvoll.no -tinn.no -tjeldsund.no -dielddanuorri.no -tjome.no -tjøme.no -tokke.no -tolga.no -torsken.no -tranoy.no -tranøy.no -tromso.no -tromsø.no -tromsa.no -romsa.no -trondheim.no -troandin.no -trysil.no -trana.no -træna.no -trogstad.no -trøgstad.no -tvedestrand.no -tydal.no -tynset.no -tysfjord.no -divtasvuodna.no -divttasvuotna.no -tysnes.no -tysvar.no -tysvær.no -tonsberg.no -tønsberg.no -ullensaker.no -ullensvang.no -ulvik.no -utsira.no -vadso.no -vadsø.no -cahcesuolo.no -čáhcesuolo.no -vaksdal.no -valle.no -vang.no -vanylven.no -vardo.no -vardø.no -varggat.no -várggát.no -vefsn.no -vaapste.no -vega.no -vegarshei.no -vegårshei.no -vennesla.no -verdal.no -verran.no -vestby.no -vestnes.no -vestre-slidre.no -vestre-toten.no -vestvagoy.no -vestvågøy.no -vevelstad.no -vik.no -vikna.no -vindafjord.no -volda.no -voss.no -varoy.no -værøy.no -vagan.no -vågan.no -voagat.no -vagsoy.no -vågsøy.no -vaga.no -vågå.no -valer.ostfold.no -våler.østfold.no -valer.hedmark.no -våler.hedmark.no - -// the co.no domain is managed by CoDNS B.V. Added 2010-05-23. -co.no - -// np : http://www.mos.com.np/register.html -*.np - -// nr : http://cenpac.net.nr/dns/index.html -// Confirmed by registry 2008-06-17 -nr -biz.nr -info.nr -gov.nr -edu.nr -org.nr -net.nr -com.nr - -// nu : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.nu -nu - -// nz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.nz -*.nz - -// om : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.om -*.om -!mediaphone.om -!nawrastelecom.om -!nawras.om -!omanmobile.om -!omanpost.om -!omantel.om -!rakpetroleum.om -!siemens.om -!songfest.om -!statecouncil.om - -// org : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.org -org - -// CentralNic names : http://www.centralnic.com/names/domains -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-17 -ae.org - -// ZaNiC names : http://www.za.net/ -// Confirmed by registry 2009-10-03 -za.org - -// pa : http://www.nic.pa/ -// Some additional second level "domains" resolve directly as hostnames, such as -// pannet.pa, so we add a rule for "pa". -pa -ac.pa -gob.pa -com.pa -org.pa -sld.pa -edu.pa -net.pa -ing.pa -abo.pa -med.pa -nom.pa - -// pe : https://www.nic.pe/InformeFinalComision.pdf -pe -edu.pe -gob.pe -nom.pe -mil.pe -org.pe -com.pe -net.pe - -// pf : http://www.gobin.info/domainname/formulaire-pf.pdf -pf -com.pf -org.pf -edu.pf - -// pg : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.pg -*.pg - -// ph : http://www.domains.ph/FAQ2.asp -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-13 -ph -com.ph -net.ph -org.ph -gov.ph -edu.ph -ngo.ph -mil.ph -i.ph - -// pk : http://pk5.pknic.net.pk/pk5/msgNamepk.PK -pk -com.pk -net.pk -edu.pk -org.pk -fam.pk -biz.pk -web.pk -gov.pk -gob.pk -gok.pk -gon.pk -gop.pk -gos.pk -info.pk - -// pl : http://www.dns.pl/english/ -pl -// NASK functional domains (nask.pl / dns.pl) : http://www.dns.pl/english/dns-funk.html -aid.pl -agro.pl -atm.pl -auto.pl -biz.pl -com.pl -edu.pl -gmina.pl -gsm.pl -info.pl -mail.pl -miasta.pl -media.pl -mil.pl -net.pl -nieruchomosci.pl -nom.pl -org.pl -pc.pl -powiat.pl -priv.pl -realestate.pl -rel.pl -sex.pl -shop.pl -sklep.pl -sos.pl -szkola.pl -targi.pl -tm.pl -tourism.pl -travel.pl -turystyka.pl -// ICM functional domains (icm.edu.pl) -6bone.pl -art.pl -mbone.pl -// Government domains (administered by ippt.gov.pl) -gov.pl -uw.gov.pl -um.gov.pl -ug.gov.pl -upow.gov.pl -starostwo.gov.pl -so.gov.pl -sr.gov.pl -po.gov.pl -pa.gov.pl -// other functional domains -ngo.pl -irc.pl -usenet.pl -// NASK geographical domains : http://www.dns.pl/english/dns-regiony.html -augustow.pl -babia-gora.pl -bedzin.pl -beskidy.pl -bialowieza.pl -bialystok.pl -bielawa.pl -bieszczady.pl -boleslawiec.pl -bydgoszcz.pl -bytom.pl -cieszyn.pl -czeladz.pl -czest.pl -dlugoleka.pl -elblag.pl -elk.pl -glogow.pl -gniezno.pl -gorlice.pl -grajewo.pl -ilawa.pl -jaworzno.pl -jelenia-gora.pl -jgora.pl -kalisz.pl -kazimierz-dolny.pl -karpacz.pl -kartuzy.pl -kaszuby.pl -katowice.pl -kepno.pl -ketrzyn.pl -klodzko.pl -kobierzyce.pl -kolobrzeg.pl -konin.pl -konskowola.pl -kutno.pl -lapy.pl -lebork.pl -legnica.pl -lezajsk.pl -limanowa.pl -lomza.pl -lowicz.pl -lubin.pl -lukow.pl -malbork.pl -malopolska.pl -mazowsze.pl -mazury.pl -mielec.pl -mielno.pl -mragowo.pl -naklo.pl -nowaruda.pl -nysa.pl -olawa.pl -olecko.pl -olkusz.pl -olsztyn.pl -opoczno.pl -opole.pl -ostroda.pl -ostroleka.pl -ostrowiec.pl -ostrowwlkp.pl -pila.pl -pisz.pl -podhale.pl -podlasie.pl -polkowice.pl -pomorze.pl -pomorskie.pl -prochowice.pl -pruszkow.pl -przeworsk.pl -pulawy.pl -radom.pl -rawa-maz.pl -rybnik.pl -rzeszow.pl -sanok.pl -sejny.pl -siedlce.pl -slask.pl -slupsk.pl -sosnowiec.pl -stalowa-wola.pl -skoczow.pl -starachowice.pl -stargard.pl -suwalki.pl -swidnica.pl -swiebodzin.pl -swinoujscie.pl -szczecin.pl -szczytno.pl -tarnobrzeg.pl -tgory.pl -turek.pl -tychy.pl -ustka.pl -walbrzych.pl -warmia.pl -warszawa.pl -waw.pl -wegrow.pl -wielun.pl -wlocl.pl -wloclawek.pl -wodzislaw.pl -wolomin.pl -wroclaw.pl -zachpomor.pl -zagan.pl -zarow.pl -zgora.pl -zgorzelec.pl -// TASK geographical domains (www.task.gda.pl/uslugi/dns) -gda.pl -gdansk.pl -gdynia.pl -med.pl -sopot.pl -// other geographical domains -gliwice.pl -krakow.pl -poznan.pl -wroc.pl -zakopane.pl - -// co.pl : Mainseek Sp. z o.o. http://www.co.pl -co.pl - -// pn : http://www.government.pn/PnRegistry/policies.htm -pn -gov.pn -co.pn -org.pn -edu.pn -net.pn - -// pr : http://www.nic.pr/index.asp?f=1 -pr -com.pr -net.pr -org.pr -gov.pr -edu.pr -isla.pr -pro.pr -biz.pr -info.pr -name.pr -// these aren't mentioned on nic.pr, but on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.pr -est.pr -prof.pr -ac.pr - -// pro : http://www.nic.pro/support_faq.htm -pro -aca.pro -bar.pro -cpa.pro -jur.pro -law.pro -med.pro -eng.pro - -// ps : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ps -// http://www.nic.ps/registration/policy.html#reg -ps -edu.ps -gov.ps -sec.ps -plo.ps -com.ps -org.ps -net.ps - -// pt : http://online.dns.pt/dns/start_dns -pt -net.pt -gov.pt -org.pt -edu.pt -int.pt -publ.pt -com.pt -nome.pt - -// pw : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.pw -pw -co.pw -ne.pw -or.pw -ed.pw -go.pw -belau.pw - -// py : http://www.nic.py/faq_a.html#faq_b -*.py - -// qa : http://www.qatar.net.qa/services/virtual.htm -*.qa - -// re : http://www.afnic.re/obtenir/chartes/nommage-re/annexe-descriptifs -re -com.re -asso.re -nom.re - -// ro : http://www.rotld.ro/ -ro -com.ro -org.ro -tm.ro -nt.ro -nom.ro -info.ro -rec.ro -arts.ro -firm.ro -store.ro -www.ro - -// rs : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.rs -rs -co.rs -org.rs -edu.rs -ac.rs -gov.rs -in.rs - -// ru : http://www.cctld.ru/ru/docs/aktiv_8.php -// Industry domains -ru -ac.ru -com.ru -edu.ru -int.ru -net.ru -org.ru -pp.ru -// Geographical domains -adygeya.ru -altai.ru -amur.ru -arkhangelsk.ru -astrakhan.ru -bashkiria.ru -belgorod.ru -bir.ru -bryansk.ru -buryatia.ru -cbg.ru -chel.ru -chelyabinsk.ru -chita.ru -chukotka.ru -chuvashia.ru -dagestan.ru -dudinka.ru -e-burg.ru -grozny.ru -irkutsk.ru -ivanovo.ru -izhevsk.ru -jar.ru -joshkar-ola.ru -kalmykia.ru -kaluga.ru -kamchatka.ru -karelia.ru -kazan.ru -kchr.ru -kemerovo.ru -khabarovsk.ru -khakassia.ru -khv.ru -kirov.ru -koenig.ru -komi.ru -kostroma.ru -krasnoyarsk.ru -kuban.ru -kurgan.ru -kursk.ru -lipetsk.ru -magadan.ru -mari.ru -mari-el.ru -marine.ru -mordovia.ru -mosreg.ru -msk.ru -murmansk.ru -nalchik.ru -nnov.ru -nov.ru -novosibirsk.ru -nsk.ru -omsk.ru -orenburg.ru -oryol.ru -palana.ru -penza.ru -perm.ru -pskov.ru -ptz.ru -rnd.ru -ryazan.ru -sakhalin.ru -samara.ru -saratov.ru -simbirsk.ru -smolensk.ru -spb.ru -stavropol.ru -stv.ru -surgut.ru -tambov.ru -tatarstan.ru -tom.ru -tomsk.ru -tsaritsyn.ru -tsk.ru -tula.ru -tuva.ru -tver.ru -tyumen.ru -udm.ru -udmurtia.ru -ulan-ude.ru -vladikavkaz.ru -vladimir.ru -vladivostok.ru -volgograd.ru -vologda.ru -voronezh.ru -vrn.ru -vyatka.ru -yakutia.ru -yamal.ru -yaroslavl.ru -yekaterinburg.ru -yuzhno-sakhalinsk.ru -// More geographical domains -amursk.ru -baikal.ru -cmw.ru -fareast.ru -jamal.ru -kms.ru -k-uralsk.ru -kustanai.ru -kuzbass.ru -magnitka.ru -mytis.ru -nakhodka.ru -nkz.ru -norilsk.ru -oskol.ru -pyatigorsk.ru -rubtsovsk.ru -snz.ru -syzran.ru -vdonsk.ru -zgrad.ru -// State domains -gov.ru -mil.ru -// Technical domains -test.ru - -// rw : http://www.nic.rw/cgi-bin/policy.pl -rw -gov.rw -net.rw -edu.rw -ac.rw -com.rw -co.rw -int.rw -mil.rw -gouv.rw - -// sa : http://www.nic.net.sa/ -sa -com.sa -net.sa -org.sa -gov.sa -med.sa -pub.sa -edu.sa -sch.sa - -// sb : http://www.sbnic.net.sb/ -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-08 -sb -com.sb -edu.sb -gov.sb -net.sb -org.sb - -// sc : http://www.nic.sc/ -sc -com.sc -gov.sc -net.sc -org.sc -edu.sc - -// sd : http://www.isoc.sd/sudanic.isoc.sd/billing_pricing.htm -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-17 -sd -com.sd -net.sd -org.sd -edu.sd -med.sd -gov.sd -info.sd - -// se : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.se -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-24 -se -a.se -ac.se -b.se -bd.se -brand.se -c.se -d.se -e.se -f.se -fh.se -fhsk.se -fhv.se -g.se -h.se -i.se -k.se -komforb.se -kommunalforbund.se -komvux.se -l.se -lanbib.se -m.se -n.se -naturbruksgymn.se -o.se -org.se -p.se -parti.se -pp.se -press.se -r.se -s.se -sshn.se -t.se -tm.se -u.se -w.se -x.se -y.se -z.se - -// sg : http://www.nic.net.sg/sub_policies_agreement/2ld.html -sg -com.sg -net.sg -org.sg -gov.sg -edu.sg -per.sg - -// sh : http://www.nic.sh/rules.html -// list of 2nd level domains ? -sh - -// si : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.si -si - -// sj : No registrations at this time. -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-16 - -// sk : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sk -// list of 2nd level domains ? -sk - -// sl : http://www.nic.sl -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-12 -sl -com.sl -net.sl -edu.sl -gov.sl -org.sl - -// sm : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sm -sm - -// sn : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sn -sn -art.sn -com.sn -edu.sn -gouv.sn -org.sn -perso.sn -univ.sn - -// so : http://www.soregistry.com/ -so -com.so -net.so -org.so - -// sr : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sr -sr - -// st : http://www.nic.st/html/policyrules/ -st -co.st -com.st -consulado.st -edu.st -embaixada.st -gov.st -mil.st -net.st -org.st -principe.st -saotome.st -store.st - -// su : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.su -su - -// sv : http://www.svnet.org.sv/svpolicy.html -*.sv - -// sy : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sy -// see also: http://www.gobin.info/domainname/sy.doc -sy -edu.sy -gov.sy -net.sy -mil.sy -com.sy -org.sy - -// sz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sz -// http://www.sispa.org.sz/ -sz -co.sz -ac.sz -org.sz - -// tc : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tc -tc - -// td : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.td -td - -// tel: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tel -// http://www.telnic.org/ -tel - -// tf : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tf -tf - -// tg : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tg -// http://www.nic.tg/nictg/index.php implies no reserved 2nd-level domains, -// although this contradicts wikipedia. -tg - -// th : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.th -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-17 -th -ac.th -co.th -go.th -in.th -mi.th -net.th -or.th - -// tj : http://www.nic.tj/policy.htm -tj -ac.tj -biz.tj -co.tj -com.tj -edu.tj -go.tj -gov.tj -int.tj -mil.tj -name.tj -net.tj -nic.tj -org.tj -test.tj -web.tj - -// tk : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tk -tk - -// tl : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tl -tl -gov.tl - -// tm : http://www.nic.tm/rules.html -// list of 2nd level tlds ? -tm - -// tn : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tn -// http://whois.ati.tn/ -tn -com.tn -ens.tn -fin.tn -gov.tn -ind.tn -intl.tn -nat.tn -net.tn -org.tn -info.tn -perso.tn -tourism.tn -edunet.tn -rnrt.tn -rns.tn -rnu.tn -mincom.tn -agrinet.tn -defense.tn -turen.tn - -// to : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.to -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-17 -to -com.to -gov.to -net.to -org.to -edu.to -mil.to - -// tr : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tr -*.tr -!nic.tr -// Used by government in the TRNC -// http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.nc.tr -gov.nc.tr - -// travel : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.travel -travel - -// tt : http://www.nic.tt/ -tt -co.tt -com.tt -org.tt -net.tt -biz.tt -info.tt -pro.tt -int.tt -coop.tt -jobs.tt -mobi.tt -travel.tt -museum.tt -aero.tt -name.tt -gov.tt -edu.tt - -// tv : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tv -// Not listing any 2LDs as reserved since none seem to exist in practice, -// Wikipedia notwithstanding. -tv - -// tw : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tw -tw -edu.tw -gov.tw -mil.tw -com.tw -net.tw -org.tw -idv.tw -game.tw -ebiz.tw -club.tw -網路.tw -組織.tw -商業.tw - -// tz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tz -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-17 -// Updated from http://www.tznic.or.tz/index.php/domains.html 2010-10-25 -ac.tz -co.tz -go.tz -mil.tz -ne.tz -or.tz -sc.tz - -// ua : http://www.nic.net.ua/ -ua -com.ua -edu.ua -gov.ua -in.ua -net.ua -org.ua -// ua geo-names -cherkassy.ua -chernigov.ua -chernovtsy.ua -ck.ua -cn.ua -crimea.ua -cv.ua -dn.ua -dnepropetrovsk.ua -donetsk.ua -dp.ua -if.ua -ivano-frankivsk.ua -kh.ua -kharkov.ua -kherson.ua -khmelnitskiy.ua -kiev.ua -kirovograd.ua -km.ua -kr.ua -ks.ua -kv.ua -lg.ua -lugansk.ua -lutsk.ua -lviv.ua -mk.ua -nikolaev.ua -od.ua -odessa.ua -pl.ua -poltava.ua -rovno.ua -rv.ua -sebastopol.ua -sumy.ua -te.ua -ternopil.ua -uzhgorod.ua -vinnica.ua -vn.ua -zaporizhzhe.ua -zp.ua -zhitomir.ua -zt.ua - -// ug : http://www.registry.co.ug/ -ug -co.ug -ac.ug -sc.ug -go.ug -ne.ug -or.ug - -// uk : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.uk -*.uk -*.sch.uk -!bl.uk -!british-library.uk -!icnet.uk -!jet.uk -!mod.uk -!nel.uk -!nhs.uk -!nic.uk -!nls.uk -!national-library-scotland.uk -!parliament.uk -!police.uk - -// us : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.us -us -dni.us -fed.us -isa.us -kids.us -nsn.us -// us geographic names -ak.us -al.us -ar.us -as.us -az.us -ca.us -co.us -ct.us -dc.us -de.us -fl.us -ga.us -gu.us -hi.us -ia.us -id.us -il.us -in.us -ks.us -ky.us -la.us -ma.us -md.us -me.us -mi.us -mn.us -mo.us -ms.us -mt.us -nc.us -nd.us -ne.us -nh.us -nj.us -nm.us -nv.us -ny.us -oh.us -ok.us -or.us -pa.us -pr.us -ri.us -sc.us -sd.us -tn.us -tx.us -ut.us -vi.us -vt.us -va.us -wa.us -wi.us -wv.us -wy.us -// The registrar notes several more specific domains available in each state, -// such as state.*.us, dst.*.us, etc., but resolution of these is somewhat -// haphazard; in some states these domains resolve as addresses, while in others -// only subdomains are available, or even nothing at all. We include the -// most common ones where it's clear that different sites are different -// entities. -k12.ak.us -k12.al.us -k12.ar.us -k12.as.us -k12.az.us -k12.ca.us -k12.co.us -k12.ct.us -k12.dc.us -k12.de.us -k12.fl.us -k12.ga.us -k12.gu.us -// k12.hi.us Hawaii has a state-wide DOE login: bug 614565 -k12.ia.us -k12.id.us -k12.il.us -k12.in.us -k12.ks.us -k12.ky.us -k12.la.us -k12.ma.us -k12.md.us -k12.me.us -k12.mi.us -k12.mn.us -k12.mo.us -k12.ms.us -k12.mt.us -k12.nc.us -k12.nd.us -k12.ne.us -k12.nh.us -k12.nj.us -k12.nm.us -k12.nv.us -k12.ny.us -k12.oh.us -k12.ok.us -k12.or.us -k12.pa.us -k12.pr.us -k12.ri.us -k12.sc.us -k12.sd.us -k12.tn.us -k12.tx.us -k12.ut.us -k12.vi.us -k12.vt.us -k12.va.us -k12.wa.us -k12.wi.us -k12.wv.us -k12.wy.us - -cc.ak.us -cc.al.us -cc.ar.us -cc.as.us -cc.az.us -cc.ca.us -cc.co.us -cc.ct.us -cc.dc.us -cc.de.us -cc.fl.us -cc.ga.us -cc.gu.us -cc.hi.us -cc.ia.us -cc.id.us -cc.il.us -cc.in.us -cc.ks.us -cc.ky.us -cc.la.us -cc.ma.us -cc.md.us -cc.me.us -cc.mi.us -cc.mn.us -cc.mo.us -cc.ms.us -cc.mt.us -cc.nc.us -cc.nd.us -cc.ne.us -cc.nh.us -cc.nj.us -cc.nm.us -cc.nv.us -cc.ny.us -cc.oh.us -cc.ok.us -cc.or.us -cc.pa.us -cc.pr.us -cc.ri.us -cc.sc.us -cc.sd.us -cc.tn.us -cc.tx.us -cc.ut.us -cc.vi.us -cc.vt.us -cc.va.us -cc.wa.us -cc.wi.us -cc.wv.us -cc.wy.us - -lib.ak.us -lib.al.us -lib.ar.us -lib.as.us -lib.az.us -lib.ca.us -lib.co.us -lib.ct.us -lib.dc.us -lib.de.us -lib.fl.us -lib.ga.us -lib.gu.us -lib.hi.us -lib.ia.us -lib.id.us -lib.il.us -lib.in.us -lib.ks.us -lib.ky.us -lib.la.us -lib.ma.us -lib.md.us -lib.me.us -lib.mi.us -lib.mn.us -lib.mo.us -lib.ms.us -lib.mt.us -lib.nc.us -lib.nd.us -lib.ne.us -lib.nh.us -lib.nj.us -lib.nm.us -lib.nv.us -lib.ny.us -lib.oh.us -lib.ok.us -lib.or.us -lib.pa.us -lib.pr.us -lib.ri.us -lib.sc.us -lib.sd.us -lib.tn.us -lib.tx.us -lib.ut.us -lib.vi.us -lib.vt.us -lib.va.us -lib.wa.us -lib.wi.us -lib.wv.us -lib.wy.us - -// k12.ma.us contains school districts in Massachusetts. The 4LDs are -// managed indepedently except for private (PVT), charter (CHTR) and -// parochial (PAROCH) schools. Those are delegated dorectly to the -// 5LD operators. -pvt.k12.ma.us -chtr.k12.ma.us -paroch.k12.ma.us - -// uy : http://www.antel.com.uy/ -*.uy - -// uz : http://www.reg.uz/registerr.html -// are there other 2nd level tlds ? -uz -com.uz -co.uz - -// va : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.va -va - -// vc : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.vc -// Submitted by registry 2008-06-13 -vc -com.vc -net.vc -org.vc -gov.vc -mil.vc -edu.vc - -// ve : http://registro.nic.ve/nicve/registro/index.html -*.ve - -// vg : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.vg -vg - -// vi : http://www.nic.vi/newdomainform.htm -// http://www.nic.vi/Domain_Rules/body_domain_rules.html indicates some other -// TLDs are "reserved", such as edu.vi and gov.vi, but doesn't actually say they -// are available for registration (which they do not seem to be). -vi -co.vi -com.vi -k12.vi -net.vi -org.vi - -// vn : https://www.dot.vn/vnnic/vnnic/domainregistration.jsp -vn -com.vn -net.vn -org.vn -edu.vn -gov.vn -int.vn -ac.vn -biz.vn -info.vn -name.vn -pro.vn -health.vn - -// vu : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.vu -// list of 2nd level tlds ? -vu - -// ws : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ws -// http://samoanic.ws/index.dhtml -ws -com.ws -net.ws -org.ws -gov.ws -edu.ws - -// IDN ccTLDs -// Please sort by ISO 3166 ccTLD, then punicode string -// when submitting patches and follow this format: -// ("" ) : -// [optional sponsoring org] -// - -// xn--mgbaam7a8h ("Emerat" Arabic) : AE -//http://nic.ae/english/arabicdomain/rules.jsp -امارات - -// xn--54b7fta0cc ("Bangla" Bangla) : BD -বাংলা - -// xn--fiqs8s ("China" Chinese-Han-Simplified <.Zhonggou>) : CN -// CNNIC -// http://cnnic.cn/html/Dir/2005/10/11/3218.htm -中国 - -// xn--fiqz9s ("China" Chinese-Han-Traditional <.Zhonggou>) : CN -// CNNIC -// http://cnnic.cn/html/Dir/2005/10/11/3218.htm -中國 - -// xn--lgbbat1ad8j ("Algeria / Al Jazair" Arabic) : DZ -الجزائر - -// xn--wgbh1c ("Egypt" Arabic .masr) : EG -// http://www.dotmasr.eg/ -مصر - -// xn--node ("ge" Georgian (Mkhedruli)) : GE -გე - -// xn--j6w193g ("Hong Kong" Chinese-Han) : HK -// https://www2.hkirc.hk/register/rules.jsp -香港 - -// xn--h2brj9c ("Bharat" Devanagari) : IN -// India -भारत - -// xn--mgbbh1a71e ("Bharat" Arabic) : IN -// India -بھارت - -// xn--fpcrj9c3d ("Bharat" Telugu) : IN -// India -భారత్ - -// xn--gecrj9c ("Bharat" Gujarati) : IN -// India -ભારત - -// xn--s9brj9c ("Bharat" Gurmukhi) : IN -// India -ਭਾਰਤ - -// xn--45brj9c ("Bharat" Bengali) : IN -// India -ভারত - -// xn--xkc2dl3a5ee0h ("India" Tamil) : IN -// India -இந்தியா - -// xn--mgba3a4f16a ("Iran" Persian) : IR -ایران - -// xn--mgba3a4fra ("Iran" Arabic) : IR -ايران - -//xn--mgbayh7gpa ("al-Ordon" Arabic) JO -//National Information Technology Center (NITC) -//Royal Scientific Society, Al-Jubeiha -الاردن - -// xn--3e0b707e ("Republic of Korea" Hangul) : KR -한국 - -// xn--fzc2c9e2c ("Lanka" Sinhalese-Sinhala) : LK -// http://nic.lk -ලංකා - -// xn--xkc2al3hye2a ("Ilangai" Tamil) : LK -// http://nic.lk -இலங்கை - -// xn--mgbc0a9azcg ("Morocco / al-Maghrib" Arabic) : MA -المغرب - -// xn--mgb9awbf ("Oman" Arabic) : OM -عمان - -// xn--ygbi2ammx ("Falasteen" Arabic) : PS -// The Palestinian National Internet Naming Authority (PNINA) -// http://www.pnina.ps -فلسطين - -// xn--90a3ac ("srb" Cyrillic) : RS -срб - -// xn--p1ai ("rf" Russian-Cyrillic) : RU -// http://www.cctld.ru/en/docs/rulesrf.php -рф - -// xn--wgbl6a ("Qatar" Arabic) : QA -// http://www.ict.gov.qa/ -قطر - -// xn--mgberp4a5d4ar ("AlSaudiah" Arabic) : SA -// http://www.nic.net.sa/ -السعودية - -// xn--mgberp4a5d4a87g ("AlSaudiah" Arabic) variant : SA -السعودیة - -// xn--mgbqly7c0a67fbc ("AlSaudiah" Arabic) variant : SA -السعودیۃ - -// xn--mgbqly7cvafr ("AlSaudiah" Arabic) variant : SA -السعوديه - -// xn--ogbpf8fl ("Syria" Arabic) : SY -سورية - -// xn--mgbtf8fl ("Syria" Arabic) variant : SY -سوريا - -// xn--yfro4i67o Singapore ("Singapore" Chinese-Han) : SG -新加坡 - -// xn--clchc0ea0b2g2a9gcd ("Singapore" Tamil) : SG -சிங்கப்பூர் - -// xn--o3cw4h ("Thai" Thai) : TH -// http://www.thnic.co.th -ไทย - -// xn--pgbs0dh ("Tunis") : TN -// http://nic.tn -تونس - -// xn--kpry57d ("Taiwan" Chinese-Han-Traditional) : TW -// http://www.twnic.net/english/dn/dn_07a.htm -台灣 - -// xn--kprw13d ("Taiwan" Chinese-Han-Simplified) : TW -// http://www.twnic.net/english/dn/dn_07a.htm -台湾 - -// xn--nnx388a ("Taiwan") variant : TW -臺灣 - -// xn--j1amh ("ukr" Cyrillic) : UA -укр - -// xn--mgb2ddes ("AlYemen" Arabic) : YE -اليمن - -// xxx : http://icmregistry.com -xxx - -// ye : http://www.y.net.ye/services/domain_name.htm -*.ye - -// yu : http://www.nic.yu/pravilnik-e.html -*.yu - -// za : http://www.zadna.org.za/slds.html -*.za - -// zm : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.zm -*.zm - -// zw : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.zw -*.zw - -// DynDNS.com Dynamic DNS zones : http://www.dyndns.com/services/dns/dyndns/ -dyndns-at-home.com -dyndns-at-work.com -dyndns-blog.com -dyndns-free.com -dyndns-home.com -dyndns-ip.com -dyndns-mail.com -dyndns-office.com -dyndns-pics.com -dyndns-remote.com -dyndns-server.com -dyndns-web.com -dyndns-wiki.com -dyndns-work.com -dyndns.biz -dyndns.info -dyndns.org -dyndns.tv -at-band-camp.net -ath.cx -barrel-of-knowledge.info -barrell-of-knowledge.info -better-than.tv -blogdns.com -blogdns.net -blogdns.org -blogsite.org -boldlygoingnowhere.org -broke-it.net -buyshouses.net -cechire.com -dnsalias.com -dnsalias.net -dnsalias.org -dnsdojo.com -dnsdojo.net -dnsdojo.org -does-it.net -doesntexist.com -doesntexist.org -dontexist.com -dontexist.net -dontexist.org -doomdns.com -doomdns.org -dvrdns.org -dyn-o-saur.com -dynalias.com -dynalias.net -dynalias.org -dynathome.net -dyndns.ws -endofinternet.net -endofinternet.org -endoftheinternet.org -est-a-la-maison.com -est-a-la-masion.com -est-le-patron.com -est-mon-blogueur.com -for-better.biz -for-more.biz -for-our.info -for-some.biz -for-the.biz -forgot.her.name -forgot.his.name -from-ak.com -from-al.com -from-ar.com -from-az.net -from-ca.com -from-co.net -from-ct.com -from-dc.com -from-de.com -from-fl.com -from-ga.com -from-hi.com -from-ia.com -from-id.com -from-il.com -from-in.com -from-ks.com -from-ky.com -from-la.net -from-ma.com -from-md.com -from-me.org -from-mi.com -from-mn.com -from-mo.com -from-ms.com -from-mt.com -from-nc.com -from-nd.com -from-ne.com -from-nh.com -from-nj.com -from-nm.com -from-nv.com -from-ny.net -from-oh.com -from-ok.com -from-or.com -from-pa.com -from-pr.com -from-ri.com -from-sc.com -from-sd.com -from-tn.com -from-tx.com -from-ut.com -from-va.com -from-vt.com -from-wa.com -from-wi.com -from-wv.com -from-wy.com -ftpaccess.cc -fuettertdasnetz.de -game-host.org -game-server.cc -getmyip.com -gets-it.net -go.dyndns.org -gotdns.com -gotdns.org -groks-the.info -groks-this.info -ham-radio-op.net -here-for-more.info -hobby-site.com -hobby-site.org -home.dyndns.org -homedns.org -homeftp.net -homeftp.org -homeip.net -homelinux.com -homelinux.net -homelinux.org -homeunix.com -homeunix.net -homeunix.org -iamallama.com -in-the-band.net -is-a-anarchist.com -is-a-blogger.com -is-a-bookkeeper.com -is-a-bruinsfan.org -is-a-bulls-fan.com -is-a-candidate.org -is-a-caterer.com -is-a-celticsfan.org -is-a-chef.com -is-a-chef.net -is-a-chef.org -is-a-conservative.com -is-a-cpa.com -is-a-cubicle-slave.com -is-a-democrat.com -is-a-designer.com -is-a-doctor.com -is-a-financialadvisor.com -is-a-geek.com -is-a-geek.net -is-a-geek.org -is-a-green.com -is-a-guru.com -is-a-hard-worker.com -is-a-hunter.com -is-a-knight.org -is-a-landscaper.com -is-a-lawyer.com -is-a-liberal.com -is-a-libertarian.com -is-a-linux-user.org -is-a-llama.com -is-a-musician.com -is-a-nascarfan.com -is-a-nurse.com -is-a-painter.com -is-a-patsfan.org -is-a-personaltrainer.com -is-a-photographer.com -is-a-player.com -is-a-republican.com -is-a-rockstar.com -is-a-socialist.com -is-a-soxfan.org -is-a-student.com -is-a-teacher.com -is-a-techie.com -is-a-therapist.com -is-an-accountant.com -is-an-actor.com -is-an-actress.com -is-an-anarchist.com -is-an-artist.com -is-an-engineer.com -is-an-entertainer.com -is-by.us -is-certified.com -is-found.org -is-gone.com -is-into-anime.com -is-into-cars.com -is-into-cartoons.com -is-into-games.com -is-leet.com -is-lost.org -is-not-certified.com -is-saved.org -is-slick.com -is-uberleet.com -is-very-bad.org -is-very-evil.org -is-very-good.org -is-very-nice.org -is-very-sweet.org -is-with-theband.com -isa-geek.com -isa-geek.net -isa-geek.org -isa-hockeynut.com -issmarterthanyou.com -isteingeek.de -istmein.de -kicks-ass.net -kicks-ass.org -knowsitall.info -land-4-sale.us -lebtimnetz.de -leitungsen.de -likes-pie.com -likescandy.com -merseine.nu -mine.nu -misconfused.org -mypets.ws -myphotos.cc -neat-url.com -office-on-the.net -on-the-web.tv -podzone.net -podzone.org -readmyblog.org -saves-the-whales.com -scrapper-site.net -scrapping.cc -selfip.biz -selfip.com -selfip.info -selfip.net -selfip.org -sells-for-less.com -sells-for-u.com -sells-it.net -sellsyourhome.org -servebbs.com -servebbs.net -servebbs.org -serveftp.net -serveftp.org -servegame.org -shacknet.nu -simple-url.com -space-to-rent.com -stuff-4-sale.org -stuff-4-sale.us -teaches-yoga.com -thruhere.net -traeumtgerade.de -webhop.biz -webhop.info -webhop.net -webhop.org -worse-than.tv -writesthisblog.com -- 2.11.4.GIT